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Questions and Answers 



COVERING 



THE HISTORY OP 

GERMANY 
i=B AUSTRIA 



AND THE CAUSES OF THE 
WORLD WAR 

BY 

PROF. JAMES B. TAYLOR, A. M. 

Head of History Department in Huntington School 
Northeastern College 



SUPPLEMENTARY TO 

THE WORLD^S HISTORY AT A GLANCE 



THE BALL PUBLISHING COMPANY 

BOSTON, MASS. 




Copyright, 1917, by The Ball Publishing Company 

)GI.A473287 g^p ., ,9,7 



r ^ 






Germany and Austria 

Introduction 

The reason for the inclusion in one volume of the 
history of Germany and Austria-Hungary will be ajJ- 
parent when it is remembered that until the latter half 
of the nineteenth century the history of these Teutonic 
peoples was intimately associated throughout the long 
existence of the Holy Roman Empire and the confedera- 
tions which followed the Napoleonic era. 

The German Empire of today is altogether different 
from any of the earlier confederations and dates from the 
constitution of April 16, 1871, under which all the states 
of Germany formed " an eternal union for the protection 
of the realm and the care and welfare of the German 
people." 

The states of southern Germany having, during the 
Franco- Prussian War, united with the then existing North 
German Confederation, its president, the King of Prussia, 
was crowned " German Emperor " at the palace of Ver- 
sailles in France, after the triumphant entry of the Ger- 
! man armies into Paris. 

The German Empire is composed of twenty-five States, 
comprising four Kingdoms, six Grand Duchies, five 
Duchies, seven Principalities and three Free Cities, which 
are federated under the Kaiser, who has supreme direction 
of the imperial military and political affairs, while the 
internal government of each state is administered by its 
i hereditary ruler (in the free cities by duly elected magis- 
; trates). Alsace-Lorraine, taken from France in 1871, is not 
[Strictly a member of the union, being Reichsland or im- 
perial territory — somewhat analogous to a territory of 
the United States. - - - 

' In the nature of its confederation the German Empire 
I differs radically from American conceptions of a federal 
government. There is no semblance of equality in the 
rights of its component states. Dr. A. Lawrence Lowell 
very aptly compares the confederation to " a compact 
.between a lion, half a dozen foxes and a score of mice." 
'The larger states are accorded all sorts of special privi- 



'^•^•'^ 



4 ^HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

leges and so much of the lion's share falls to Prussia that 
it may fairly be said that she rules the empire with the 
advice and assistance of the other states. 

It will be easier to understand the situation when it is 
remembered that the present empire was formed after 
the achievement of Prussian supremacy, both in arms 
and in statecraft, and that the constitution was drawn 
up by Bismarck, the most astute statesman of modern 
Europe, who not only knew exactly what he wanted, but 
just how much concession he needed to make in order to 
get what he wanted. As premier of the King of Prussia 
he framed the constitution to maintain Prussian suprem- 
acy, creating a powerful military state with its administra- 
tion firmly in the hands of the King of Prussia and his 
chancellor. Therefore, it will be found that, while the 
articles on most subjects are slightly defined, those relat- 
ing to the army, the navy and the revenue are as minutely 
elaborated as the by-laws of a modern business corpora- 
tion. While the whole system is outwardly based on 
democratic lines, the legislative powers being vested in 
two chambers, one of wluch is a popular assembly elected 
by universal manhood suffrage, analysis will prove that 
the people have little power to control legislation, which is 
firmly secured to the emperor and his federal council. 

Before explaining the branches of the government in 
detail it is well to further emphasize the extent to which 
Prussia dominates the empire. Comprising in area nearly 
two-thirds of the land area, and in population almost the 
same proportion, with the crown of the empire made 
hereditary to its king and with most of the actually vital 
legislation vested in the Bundesrath or federal council, 
it is provided that while any changes in the constitution 
require only a majority vote in the Reichstag (popular 
assembly) fourteen negative votes (out of a total of fifty- 
eight) in the Bundesrath can defeat such an amendment — 
and Prussia has in her own right seventeen votes and 
controls three more. And to make assurance doubly sure 
it is expressly provided that the vote of Prussia in the 
Bundesrath, if cast in favor of maintaining existing insti- 
tutions, will act as a veto upon any new legislation affect- 
ing the army, the navy, customs, duties and excises. 
There is no chance of a division in the Prussian vote, since 
the vote of each state in the Bundesrath is cast as a unit 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 5 

and the whole vote may be cast by a single member, just 
as a duly authorized agent can by proxy vote the entire 
stock owned by his principal in a business corporation. 
The legislative powers of the federal government are 
more extensive than in America, controlling not only sub- 
jects obviously national, but many domestic matters such 
as transportation systems, travel, changes of residence, 
regulation of trades, banking and medical and veterinary 
inspection. They include also regulation of the press and 
the whole field of jurisdiction and procedure, whether civil 
or criminal. The administrative power of the central govern- 
ment by contrast is very limited, the laws being carried 
out by officers of the individual states. Except for foreign 
affairs, the army, the navy, postal and telegraph services, 
the executive powers of the German Empire go no further 
than general regulation and supervision. While the federal 
government imposes tariffs and appoints inspectors of 
customs, the duties are collected by state officers. 

The Bundesrath decides controversies about the inter- 
pretation of a law but, should a state definitely refuse to 
administer a law, the only way its execution could be 
compelled by the federal government would be by force 
of arms ordered by the Bundesrath and executed by the 
emperor. This, indeed, is a reductio ad ahsurdum^ since 
Prussia is too overwhelmingly predominant to be thus 
coerced, while all of the other states are too weak to dare 
to invite such an appeal to force. 

The legislative powers of the German Empire are vested 
under the constitution in the Reichstag, the popular 
assembly, and the Bundesrath, or federal council. 

The Reichstag is composed of 397 members appointed 
as follows : Prussia, 236 (about three-fifths of the house) ; 
Bavaria, 48; Saxony, 23 ; Wiirttemberg, 17; Alsace-Lorraine, 
15; Baden, 14; Hesse, 9; Mecklenburg- Schwerin, 6; Saxony 
(Grand Duchy), Oldenburg, Brunswick and Hamburg, 3 
each; Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Anhalt 
2 each, and the other states 1 each. 

Election is by ballot, or universal manhood suffrage, 
an absolute majority being necessary for election. In 
case of no choice, the second ballot is restricted to the 
two candidates who received the largest number of votes. 
The term of office is five years and, since 1906, members 
have been paid a salary of 3000 marks (about $750) per 



6 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

session, with a deduction of 20 marks per day for absences. 
They have free passes over the railways during sessions. 

The state of parties in the Reichstag May 1, 1916, was: 
Centre Party, 91; Social Democrats, 89; National Liberals, 
45; Conservatives, 44; Radicals, 45; the German Party, 
27; Poles, 18; Social Democratic Labour Union, 18*; 
Independent, 20. 

Voters must be twenty-five years old and not in active 
service in army or disqualified by pauperism, etc. 

Electoral districts were originally based on a proportion 
of one member to 100,000 population but, not having been 
revised for years, great irregularities exist. For example, 
Berlin has only six members for a population of two and 
one-half million, but as Berlin elects radicals the govern- 
ment does not want any reapportionment. 

The powers of the Reichstag appear very large on 
paper. All laws require its consent, as do the budget, 
loans and treaties involving legislative matters. It has 
the right to initiate legislation, to ask for information, 
and to express its opinion on governmental affairs. 

In reality, however, its powers are nowhere near as 
great as they seem. Although the constitution provides 
for an annual budget, the principal revenue laws are 
permanent and cannot be changed without the consent 
of the Bundesrath. So, also, army appropriations are 
practically determined by the law governing the number 
of troops, voted for a number of years at a time. 

The chief function of the Reichstag is the consideration 
of bills prepared by the chancellor and Bundesrath which 
it criticizes and amends pretty freely, but its real power 
is negative rather than positive, and it can be dissolved 
at any time by the emperor with the approval of the 
Bundesrath. 

The Bundesrath, or federal council of the empire, is 
composed of delegates appointed by the reigning princes 
of the states and the senates of the free cities. There are 
61 members, but as the three members from the Reichs- 
land of Alsace-Lorraine are not permitted to vote, its 
actual membership is 58. Of these, Prussia has 17 and 
also controls the two votes of Brunswick and the one vote 
of Waldeck; Bavaria has 6; Saxony and Wiirttemberg 4 

* Broke away from Social Democratic Party, March 24, 1916. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 7 

each; Baden and Hesse 3 each; Mecklenburg- Schwerin 
2, and the remaining thirteen states and three free 
cities 1 each. 

The Bundesrath, the powers of which cover in reaHty 
nearly the whole field of government, is unlike any other 
body in the world. A combination of legislature, executive 
council, court of appeal and permanent convention of 
diplomatists, it is part of a constitutional system with 
power to make laws, and yet is not a deliberative assembly, 
since the delegates have to vote as instructed by their 
home governments. Essentially it represents the rulers 
of the states and not the people. And the whole vote of 
each state may be cast by a single member present. In 
legislation, it has practically the first word and the last 
word. As a part of the executive, it regulates the adminis- 
tration, has executive authority over finance, shares the 
appointing power, and its consent is necessary to war, 
except where an attack has been made on the territory of 
the empire. In judicial matters it decides disputes be- 
tween federal and state governments and appealed cases 
from state courts. Its members are given the privileges 
of foreign ambassadors, are appointed and removed at 
will by the states they represent and paid or not paid as 
these states choose. 

The extent to which Prussia dominates the affairs of 
the empire through its powers in the Bundesrath has 
already been indicated. It is in the same way that the 
powers of the emperor and his chancellor, while appar- 
ently carefully regulated by the constitution, are actually 
most potent. The reigning German Emperor (Deutscher 
Kaiser) is Wilhelm II, King of Prussia, grandson of 
Wilhelm I (the Great), the imperial title being, under the 
constitution, hereditary in the ruling house of Prussia, 
the Hohenzollern family. 

The Kaiser Wilhelm II was born January 27, 1859, the 
son of the Crown Prince of Prussia (afterwards Emperor 
and King Friedrich III) and Victoria, Princess Royal of 
England. He succeeded to the thrones of Prussia and 
the empire on the death of his father, June 15, 1888. 
Wilhelm II married February 27, 1881, Princess Victoria 
of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (born 
1858) and has six sons and one daughter, the eldest son 



8 HISTORY OP GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

being Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born May 6, 1882; 
married, 1905, to Princess Cecilieof Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
with issue of four sons and one daughter. 

Being on his mother's side the grandson of Queen 
Victoria, Emperor Wilhelm II is first cousin to King 
George V of England, the Queens of Spain, Norway, 
Roumania, and the Tsarina of Russia. His sister is Queen 
of Greece. 

According to the constitution, " The Emperor repre- 
sents the Empire internationally." He can declare de- 
fensive war and make peace and enter into treaties with 
other nations. But for treaties relating to matters regu- 
lated by imperial legislation or war not merely defensive 
the emperor must obtain the consent of the Bundesrath. 
As commander-in-chief of the army and navy, the Kaiser 
has personal direction of military matters. He has charge 
of foreign affairs, summons and adjourns the legislative 
chambers and, with the consent of the Bundesrath, can 
dissolve the Reichstag. He appoints the chancellor and 
other officers but, as the executive power of the federal 
government is very limited and that limited power is 
shared with the Bundesrath, his power as emperor is 
comparatively small, but his functions as king of Prussia 
immensely increase his potentiality as ruler of the empire. 

While as emperor he is given no initiative in legislation, 
as king of Prussia he has a complete initiative through the 
Prussian delegates to the Bundesrath whom he personally 
appoints and may recall. The fact that as emperor he 
has no veto rights over legislation becomes unimportant 
when it is remembered that his appointees in the Bundes- 
rath have absolute veto rights over all amendments to the 
constitution or changes in laws affecting the army, navy 
or taxes. As emperor, he has supreme command of the 
army and appoints the highest officers; as king of Prussia, 
he appoints the lower officers and manages the troops over 
most of the empire; as emperor, he instructs the chancel- 
lor to prepare a bill; as king, he has delegates introduce 
it into the Bundesrath and can absolutely control one- 
third of the votes in that body in its favor. After this, the 
bill is laid before the Reichstag in the name of the emperor, 
and as king he can direct what amendments the Bundes- 
rath may accept. After the bill is passed he promulgates 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 9 

it as emperor and in most cases administers it in Prussia 
as king; and finally as emperor he supervises his own 
administration as king. 

There is no imperial cabinet. The chancellor, who has 
subordinate assistants, but no colleagues, is the only 
federal minister. As in the case of the emperor, the 
great power of his position is due to the combination of 
his imperial and his Prussian prerogatives. As imperial 
chancellor, he is at the head of the national administra- 
tion and presides over the Bundesrath as a Prussian dele- 
gate to that body. He casts as he chooses the twenty 
votes which Prussia controls in that body. In the Reichs- 
tag he attends and speaks nominally as a member of the 
Bundesrath, but his actual importance there is as the 
head of the federal government. While it must be ap- 
parent that in actual democracy the system of government 
in Germany is very far from American or even English 
ideals as to self-government, it must not be overlooked 
that the actual welfare of the people, and especially the 
working people, has been very assiduously regarded by 
the government and in the opinion of many the prosperity 
of the rank and file of the citizens is superior to that of 
almost any country in Europe, if not in the world. 

Education is compulsory and general throughout the 
German Empire, and its schools and colleges are unequalled 
in the world. In the empire in 1911 there were 61,557 
elementary public schools with a total of 187,485 teachers 
and 10,309,949 enrolled pupils. The system of secondary 
education is homogeneous, with excellent training for 
business life and higher education, and children of the 
working class may continue their education at schools 
open in the evening. 

There are twenty- two universities in the German 
Empire, which, for the winter half-year 1914-15, carried 
an enrollment of 3450 professors and 53,074 undergradu- 
ates in theology, medicine, philosophy, jurisprudence, 
etc. And there are, besides these, numerous lyceums, 
agricultural, commercial and other professional or trade 
schools and colleges, giving ample opportunities for 
technical education. In 1913 the proportion of illiteracy 
among recruits to the army was only .04 per cent. 

Of 48,480 men included in the above total as entered 
at German universities it is estimated (1916) that 83 
per cent are in the field in war service. 



iO HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 



1 



Compulsory insurance laws protect workmen against 
sickness, .accidents and old age and infirmity. Pauperism 
is alleviated by poor relief administered by local unions. 

In national defense the German Empire since its 
organization in 1871 has maintained a system of pre- 
paredness which has been the most marvellously minute 
of any the world has ever seen. During the greater part 
of this period the aim has been to keep everything requisite 
to war on a basis of readiness for " war tomorrow." In 
the army, military service is compulsory and universal; 
with the usual exemptions. Liability begins at the age 
of seventeen and ends at forty-five, but actual service 
commences at twenty, with a seven-year term in the 
First Line, or active army, of which two years are in the 
ranks and five years in the reserves (in cavalry and horse 
artillery these periods are three and four years, respec- 
tively). The next service is five years (cavalry and horse 
artillery three years) in the first " ban " of the Landwehr, 
or Second Line army. These 'have two short service 
musters of a fortnight or less during this period. After 
this five years the soldier passes to the second " ban " of 
the Landwehr, where he remains until he has completed 
his thirty-ninth year with no training requirements, but 
subject to call for duty if needed. At thirty-nine all 
soldiers pass into the Landsturm, in which they remain for 
six years. This is a purely home defensive force and also 
registers all those between seventeen and thirty-nine who 
for one reason or another have had no military training. 
The estimates in the last edition of the handbook of 
the German army, published in 1912, of the available 
trained and untrained men of the German army, excluding 
officers and officials, were as follows: 
Trained rank and file, including Reserve and 

Landwehr 3,302,000 

Trained Landsturm 623,000 

One year volunteers 85,000 

Non-commissioned officers of Peace Establish- 
ment 92,000 

Total trained 4,102,000 

Partially trained Ersatz Reserve . . . 113,000 
Untrained Ersatz Reserve and 

Landsturm 5,683,000 5,796,000 

Grand total 9,898,000 



J 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 11 

The Peace Establishment of the German army in 1914 
at the outbreak of the war was given as 769,938 non- 
commissioned officers and men, with 36,088 officers. 

The German navy was reorganized after the War of 
1870-71 and a grand plan of naval armament was adopted, 
the administration of which, in 1889, was again entirely 
reorganized. 

" The Statesman's Year Book for 1916 " gives the 
following as a statement of the strength of the German 
fleet so far as it can be estimated, allowing for admitted 
losses, foreign ships bought, and accelerated construction. 
The 1916 figures are, of course, based on what the 
strength would be were no further losses incurred: 

Effective at the end of 
Class 1914 1915 1916 

Dreadnaughts 21 22 28 

Pre-dreadnaught battleships. . 22 20 20 
Old and coast service battle- 
ships 2 + 7 

Armored cruisers 6 4 3 

Protected cruisers 34 32 34 

Destroyers 150 164 ? 

Torpedo boats (old) 47 47 47 

Submarines 20 ? ? 

German naval plans were disorganized at the outbreak 
of the war by the fact that the British fleet was ready, 
and as a result of the British blockade the greater part 
of the fleet has spent the time in inactivity, while the few 
war vessels actually afloat in the oceans were pursued and 
destroyed. It appears (January, 1917) that two or 
three converted war vessels are actively engaged in raid- 
ing and have inflicted considerable losses upon the mer- 
chant vessels of the allied nations. 



Austria-Hungary 

The Austro-Hungarian monarchy consists of a confeder- 
ation of two independent states: the Empire of Austria 
and the Kingdom of Hungary. The existing union be- 
tween these states is defined by the so-called Compromise 
of 1867. Under this agreement each state is perfectly 
independent of the other, possessing each its separate 
constitution, legislative and executive departments, for 



12 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

most branches of state affairs. The identity of the sover- 
eign and community in those departments of national 
affairs which relate to the outside world unite the " dual " 
monarchy into an actual political unit. 

Besides Austria and Hungary, the dual monarchy in- 
cludes as a dependency the provinces of Bosnia-Herze- 
govina, but these territories have no representation in the 
dual government. 

All foreign affairs are administered through a common 
ministry and all diplomatic representation abroad is com- 
mon to the two states. In national defense the greater 
part of the armed forces and the entire navy are common 
and, although the Austrian " Landwehr " and the Hun- 
garian " Honvedseg " and the '' Levies in Mass " of each 
country are special institutions separately administered 
by each state, they stand in organic connection with the 
Common Army when needed for national service. In 
matters of finance relating to common affairs the costs and 
expenses are equally shared, each state providing sepa- 
rately for the assessment, collection and transmission of 
its contribution, which is administered and disbursed 
through a bureau in common. The control of the official 
actions of the common ministers and the voting of the 
common budget is exercised by two delegations, each con- 
sisting of sixty members, of whom twenty are chosen from 
the upper house of Austria (Herrenhaus) and of Hungary 
(Forendihaz) and forty from the lower houses, the Ab- 
geordnetenhaus of Austria and the K6pviselohaz of Hun- 
gary. These delegates are elected for one year, meeting 
alternately at Vienna and Buda Pesth, each chamber of 
delegates electing its own president and vice-president. 
Each body debates and votes separately, but to become 
operative every law must be separately approved by both, 
all enactments being, therefore, mutually transmitted. In 
case of a deadlock, a joint session is held for voting, but 
not for debating. In every other respect legislation on 
common affairs belongs to the individual parliaments of 
Austria and Hungary. 

The two states form one commercial and customs terri- 
tory to the outside world but free trade between them 
depends upon a commercial treaty renewable every ten 
years. They possess the same system of coinage, the same 
weights and measures and a joint bank of issue. There 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 13 

is no dual citizenship in the dual monarchy. Every citizen 
is either an Austrian or a Hungarian subject. 

The sovereign is one in person, but two in office. His 
title is Emperor of Austria (King of Bohemia, Dalmatia, 
Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria,. and Illyria, King 
of Jerusalem, etc.) and Apostolic King of Hungary. The 
monarch begins his reign with two separate coronations, 
one at Vienna where he takes oath to the Austrian con- 
stitution before the " Reichsrath " ; and the other at 
Buda Pesth, where he swears to uphold the Hungarian 
constitution before the '' Orszaggyiiles," these being the 
respective parliaments of the two monarchies. 

The two crowns of Austria and Hungary are hereditary 
in the Hapsburg-Lorraine dynasty. The monarch must 
be a Roman Catholic. The present occupant of the dual 
throne is His Imperial and Apostolic Majesty, Karl I 
(IV of Hungary) who was born August 17, 1887, a grand- 
son of the Archduke Karl Ludwig, who was a brother of the 
late Emp ror-King Franz Josef I. He succeeded to 
the thrones upon the death of his grand-uncle, November 
21, 1916. Married October 21, 1911, to Zita, Princess 
of Bourbon and Parma. The Emperor has two sons and 
a daughter, the heir apparent being Crown Prince Franz 
Joseph Otto, born November 20, 1912. 

As the new Emperor Karl has so recently succeeded 
mention should also be made of the late Emperor Franz 
Josef I, who was born August 18. 1830, being the son of the 
Archduke Franz Karl and Sophia, Princess of Bavaria. 
He was a grandson of the Emperor Franz II, the father of 
Napoleon's Empress Marie Louise. Franz Josef was pro- 
claimed Emperor of Austria December 2, 1848, after the 
abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand I (V of Hungary), his 
father having renounced the crown in his favor. Although 
claiming sovereignty over Hungary through his accession 
to the Austrian throne it was not until June 8, 1867, that 
he was actually crowned King of Hungary, taking, oath 
to the Hungarian constitution at the same time. 

Emperor Franz Josef married April 24, 1854, Elisabeth, 
daughter of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, bom December 
24, 1837, assassinated at Geneva September 10, 1898. His 
family life had been desolated by tragedy and misfortune. 
His son and heir, Rudolph, died years ago under mysteri- 
ously tragic conditions, and his nephew, Franz Ferdinand, 



14 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 



the heir presumptive, was murdered at Saravejo June 28, 
1914, the tragedy having been the initial cause of the great 
European war. At the time of his death the Emperor 
Franz Josef was both in years and in length of reign the 
oldest sovereign of Europe. 

The emperor-king is supported in the executive ad- 
ministration by a common ministry, consisting of a 
Minister of Foreign Affairs, of War, and of Finance. These 
ministers are responsible for the discharge of these official 
functions to the delegations. 

• In national defense the peculiarities of the dual mon- 
archy are shown in the organization of its military forces. 
The first line of the army is under the common govern- 
ment and is known as the " Common Army," including 
troops raised not only in the two component states but 
also in the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As has 
already been explained, the Austrian Landwehr and Land- 
sturm are entirely separate from the Hungarian similar 
bodies (Honv6d and Nepfolkeles), the latter forming the 
Hungarian National Army but being eligible for service 
with the Common Army at need. Military service is uni- 
versal and compulsory throughout the empire, liability 
extending from the nineteenth to the forty-second year, 
actual service usually beginning in the twenty-first year. 
In the Common Army and both Landwehrs continuous 
service is for two years (three years for cavalry and horse 
artillery) followed by ten years in the Reserve>/seven years 
for cavalry and horse artillery and then two^ears in the 
Reserve of the Landwehr). In Bosnia and Herzegovina 
there is no Landsturm, but men remain in the Reserve 
until they reach the age limit. After completion of his 
twelfth year of service the soldier passes to the Landsturm, 
in which he remains till he has reached his forty-second 
birthday. The empire is divided into sixteen army corps 
districts; each district is supposed to furnish a complete 
army corps of two divisions of the Common Army, but one 
district has three divisions. Each army corps district has 
also one Landwehr, or Honv^d, division and one district 
has two Honv6d divisions. 

There are six permanent cavalry divisions, but eight 
could be mobilized in war. Each army corps contains 
about 34,000 combat9,nts and each cavalry division about 
4000 combatants. The total strength of the regulars in 



28, I 



i 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 15 

the field army may be taken as about 590,000 combatants. 
To these must be added eight Austrian Landwehr and 
seven Hungarian Honved divisions, about 230,000, making 
a grand total of 820,000 combatants. The Peace Estab- 
lishment of the Common Army, Austrian Landwehr and 
Hungarian Honved in 1913 totaled 34,069 officers and 
390,249 men. 

The Austro-Hungarian navy is administered by the 
Naval Department of the War Ministry. In effective 
ships in August, 1916, it comprised approximately: 

Dreadnaughts 4 

Pre-dreadnaughts : 12 

Armored cruisers 3 

Cruisers 10 

Torpedo gunboats. 3 

Destroyers 28 

Torpedo boats 47 

Submarines 12 

In Austria legislation is vested in the Reichsrath, or 
Parliament, consisting of an upper house (Herrenhaus) 
and a lower house (Abgeordnetenhaus). The Herrenhaus 
comprises the following members : 
Archdukes of the imperial family (who are of age) .... 15 

Hereditary landed nobility 81 

Ecclesiastical princes 17 

Life members (nominated by the emperor for emi- 
nent public services) 159 

Total membership 271 

The Abgeordnetennaus is composed of 516 deputies 
elected by universal manhood suffrage (voting age twenty- 
four years) on secret ballot. The maximum duration of the 
lower house is six years and deputies receive a salary of 
20 Krone (about $5) for each day's attendance, and allow- 
ance for travel expenses. 

The Reichsrath meets annually; bills must receive the 
assent of both houses and the sanction of the emperor. 

In Hungary, legislation is vested in a parliament 
(Orszaggyiiles) consisting of a House of Magnates (Foren- 
dihaz) and a House of Representatives (Kepviselohdz). 
The parliament is summoned annually by the king at 
Buda Pesth. ^he language is Hungarian but representatives 



16 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

of Croatia and Slavonia may speak their own tongues. 
The House of Magnates in the session of 1912-13 consisted 
of: 

Archdukes of the royal family 15 

Hungarian hereditary peers, each paying at least 

6000 crowns a year land tax 227 

Ecclesiastical dignitaries of Roman Catholic and 

Greek Churches 38 

Ecclesiastical and lay representatives of Protestant 

faith 12 

Life peers appointed by the crown 61 

State dignitaries, members ex officiis 17 

Delegates of Croatia and Slavonia 3 

The Governor of Fiume 1 

Total membership 374 

The House of Representatives by the electoral law now 
in force consists of 453 members, of whom 413 are deputies 
of Hungarian towns and districts, and 40 delegates of 
Croatia and Slavonia. Its members receive 4800 crowns 
(about $1000) a year, with an allowance of 1600 crowns a 
year for house rent. New elections must take place every 
five years. The deputies to the Hungarian lower house 
are elected by vote of all male citizens of twenty years of 
age, who pay a small direct tax on house property or land, 
or on an income varying with occupation, but in all cases 
low. Certain large classes of educational attainments are 
permitted to vote without other qualifications. 

Questions and Answers 

1. Why are the Germans and Austrians called Teutons? 

Ans. Because these nations are the most conspicuous 
representatives of the very important division of the 
great European peoples known by that name. 

2. What other Teutonic people are there? 

Ans. All the Scandinavian peoples, viz.y Swedes, Nor- 
wegians, Danes, and Icelanders form one Teutonic group, 
while the German-speaking people in Germany, Austria, 
and Switzerland, the Dutch of Holland, the Flemings of 
Belgium, form another group. Moreover, the Jutes, 



I 



I 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 17 

Angles, and Saxons of England, their descendants in 
North America, Australia and other British and German 
and Dutch colonies are all of Teutonic origin. 

3. Is not the bulk of the civilized world, then, Teutonic? 

Ans. The greatest working forces of the world today 
are undoubtedly of Teutonic origin. 

4. What other European races are there besides the 
Teutonic? 

Ans. The Celtic and^the Grseco-Roman tribes were 
probably the first of known people to occupy central and 
southern Europe, coming presumably from western Asia 
many centuries B.C. Next, the great, forceful Teutonic 
race descended like a glacier into the forests and valleys 
of central Europe from the frozen North and crowded the 
Celts to the west of Europe, where the Romans found 
them occupying Spain, France, and the British Isles, in the 
first century B.C. The Slavic race, of which the Rus- 
sians are the most prominent nation, is the fourth and last 
of the four leading races in Europe. 

5. Are there other people of any prominence in Europe 
besides Celts, Teutons, Slavs, and Graeco-Romans? 

Ans. The Turks, an alien race, penetrated eastern 
Europe in the fourteenth century, though they occupy 
more territory in Asia than in Europe, and the Huns, 
fierce pagans, who, after conversion to Christianity, de- 
veloped into the modern Hungarians, are all that require 
notice. 

6. How early did the Germans begin to be known as 
such? 

Ans. The first we know of the people who inhabited 
the dense forests that stretched from the Rhine to the 
Vistula and from the Danube to the Baltic is told us by 
Tacitus, the Roman historian of the first century A.D. 
The first clash between them and the Romans occurred 
in 113 B.C. when the Cimbri and Teutons invading Styria 
in Austria were defeated by the Romans. In 102 and 101 
B.C. the same tribes tried separately, in successive years, 
to invade Italy but were met by the great Marius and 
defeated with fearful loss. 



18 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

7. What were the characteristics of the early Germans 
or Teutons? 

Ans. The early Germans, or Teutons, are credited by 
Tacitus and Caesar with the virtues of chastity in their 
women, great bravery in their men, and of temperance in 
both sexes. 

8. What was Caesar's experience with the Germans? 

Ans. When given Gaul, or France, in 58 B.C. as his 
province to subdue, Caesar found Germans living betw^een 
the Rhine and the Vosges and even on the western slope 
of the latter. Appealed to for help by some of the Gauls, 
he administered a crushing defeat to Ariovistus, their 
general, and drove him across the Rhine. 

9. After Caesar's victory did the Romans have any 
further trouble with the Germans before the fall of Rome? 

Ans. In A.D. 9, Varus, a Roman general, suffered a 
severe defeat in the Teutoburg wood from the Germans 
under Arminius. The Emperor Augustus Caesar was 
greatly upset by this rare misfortune to Roman arms and 
was heard to exclaim again and again, " O Varus, give me 
back my legions!" 

10. What development do we find after the third 
century A.D. in the German tribes? 

Ans. After the third century the Germans rarely 
appear as small single tribes, but rather as great confedera- 
tions of tribes, such as the Goths, Alemanni, Franks, 
Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians and one or two smaller 
combinations. 

11. Which of the German confederations was the first 
to settle within the Roman Empire? 

Ans. The first Germans to find lodgment among the 
Romans were the Goths living north of the low^er Danube. 
In 376 they begged of Valens, the eastern Roman Emperor 
at Constantinople, leave to cross the Danube in order 
to escape the fierce Asiatic Huns then crowding into 
Europe from Tartary. They were allowed to cross on 
condition of receiving baptism, giving up their arms and 
also their children as hostages. Wherever they could 



1 
I 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 19 

they concealed and retained their weapons and soon 
wandered at will over Macedonia and Thrace. These were 
the Visigoths or Western Goths. 

12. Who next followed the Visigoths into the Roman 
domain? 

Ans. Next to the Visigoths came the Ostrogoths, or 
Eastern Goths, and fought with and overcame the Visi- 
goths. Their leader was Theodoric, an able man; he led 
his tribe into Italy proper and demanded land for his 
soldiers who had fought for Rome. 

13. What became of the other tribes of Germany in 
the break-up of the Roman Empire? 

Ans. The Burgundians settled in southeastern France, 
in the region afterwards called Burgundy. The Franks 
settled on both sides of the lower Rhine. The Suevi and 
Vandals invaded Spain. The Vandals, from whom An- 
dalusia in Spain takes its name, crossed the Strait of 
Gibraltar and skirted northern Africa till they resettled 
ancient Carthage. Their wide, ruthless wanderings have 
given us the common word, vandals. The Angles, Saxons, 
and Jutes also settled in England. 

14. Which of all the German tribes became the most 
distinguished? 

Ans. The Franks, by conquering Gaul, afterwards 
called France, and later, under Charlemagne, adding 
Germany and Italy under the same crown, became easily 
the most illustrious of the various German confederations. 

15. Who was the most illustrious ruler of the Franks? 

Ans. Charlemagne, or Charles (Karl) the Great, the 
only monarch in history to be dignified by having the 
phrase welded into one word, was crowned by the pope 
as Emperor of the Roman Empire of the West, as he 
knelt to receive the papal blessing on Christmas Day, 
A.D. 800. 

16. How had Charlemagne become Emperor of the 
West? 

Ans. In 732 Carl Martel, or Carl the Hammer, had 
hammered the invading Mohammedans for three days at 



20 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 



Tours in France and driven their hordes back over the 
Pyrenees, where they lingered in southern Spain till 1492. 
Carl was then Mayor of the Palace, or chief executive 
officer to the weak Merovingian Prankish kings who had 
degenerated from their early vigor. Pepin, son and suc- 
cessor of Charles Martel, shut up the effeminate king 
in a monastery and, occupying the throne himself, es- 
tablished the Carlovingian line, named after his forceful 
father. Pope Stephen II, troubled by the Lombards, an- 
other German tribe that had invaded northern Italy, 
sought the aid of Pepin who, readily granting it, chastised 
the Lombards and gave the pope some of their territory, 
thus first establishing (755 A.D.) the temporal power of 
the papacy. Charlemagne, as a good son of the church, 
confirmed and strengthened the acts of his father, Pepin, 
in Italy and received his proud title in return. 

17. What else is there to know about this first very 
illustrious Teuton? 

Ans. Charlemagne reigned from 771 to 814. He was 
an indefatigable worker, warrior, and scholar. He caused 
learned men to discourse to him at the table and began 
the study of Greek when sixty years old. He invaded 
Spain; he pushed the Slavs back into what is now eastern 
Prussia ; but he had his hardest conflicts with the Saxons, 
who remained unsubdued until he cut off the right hand 
of some ten thousand of them. 

18. What became of the great Roman Empire of the 
West? 

Ans. Charlemagne's empire was too vast to hold to- 
gether under weaker men ; the three leading countries that 
formed it were divided in 843 at Verdun, France, among 
his three grandsons, Lothaire, Charles, and Louis, on the 
death of their weak father, Louis I. Henceforth, we have 
the three separate modern countries of France, Italy, and 
Germany. Moreover, after the termination of the Carlo- 
vingian line, the crown ceased to be hereditary and Ger- 
many became an elective feudal monarchy. 

19. Of what did the early modem Germany of the 
ninth century consist? 

Ans. There were in the ninth century five German 
nations: Franks, Saxons, Bavarians, Swabians, and Lor- 



1 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 21 

rainers. Of these, the Franks, who had conquered and held 
the land, were most prominent and the firsts emperor 
chosen by the five nations after the extinction of the 
Carlo vingian dynasty was the chief of the Franks, the 
Duke of Franconia, who reigned as King of Germany from 
911 to 918 as Conrad I. He was succeeded at his own 
suggestion by his rival and adversary, Henry, Duke of 
Saxony. Henry was an able ruler and defeated Danes, 
Slavs, and the fierce Magyars, or Huns. His son. Otto I, 
936-973, extended his father's conquests and added 
Lombardy to his domains, thus starting complications 
between German and Italian rulers that lasted for cen- 
turies. It was this emperor, known as Otto the Great, 
who revived the title of the " Holy Roman Empire." 

20. What progress did German affairs exhibit in th^ 
eleventh and twelfth centuries? 

Ans. Other Ottos, Conrads, and Henrys of Fran- 
conian or Saxon origin followed the first of their names as 
kings of Germany, one of them adding Burgundy and 
another Denmark, Bohemia, and Hungary, though all 
this territory was not retained long. In Conrad III, 1138- 
52 we have the first of the House of Hohenstaufen. In the 
thirteenth century the right of election which had been 
exercised by all the grand nobles of the empire became 
restricted to the holders of the highest civil and ecclesiasti- 
cal offices. In 1352 Frankfort became the regular place of 
election and continued as such until the dissolution of the 
German Empire in the nineteenth century. 

Frederick Barbarossa (Redbeard), nephew of Conrad 
III, was elected king on Conrad's recommendation and 
was the first of the Swabians to occupy that position. 
His reign, from 1152 to 1190, was very splendid. 

21. What was the popular belief about Barbarossa? 

Ans. Frederick Redbeard lost his life in the Third 
Crusade and so great had been his efforts and aspirations 
for Germany that the belief grew common that he would 
come again some time and lead his people into wider 
territories. This old belief was recalled when William I 
was crowned German Emperor at Versailles, after the 
fall of Paris, 



22 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

22. Why do we not hear of Prussia and Austria in the 
eariy history of Germany? 

Ans. Prussia and Austria are comparatively late Ger- 
man developments, especially Prussia. Austria dates back 
to the eighth century and Prussia only to the tenth. 

23. What was the early history of Austria? 

Ans. The empire of Austria arose from the smallest 
beginning at the end of the eighth century* In 796 a 
margraviate, called the Eastern Mark (i.e., march, or 
frontier land; hence " marquis "), was founded as an out- 
post of the empire of Charlemagne in the country between 
the rivers Enns and Raab. The name Oesterreich ap- 
pears first in 996. In 1156 the mark was raised to a 
duchy and under the House of Hapsburg, beginning in 
1*282, it rapidly became powerful. By marriage, by pur- 
chase and otherwise, the princes of that house extended 
their power over several other states and from 1438 held 
the throne of the German Empire almost without inter- 
ruption. 

24. Who was the first of the House of Hapsburg? 

Ans. Rudolph I, 1273, is the first of the present House 
of Hapsburg, still ruling Austria; and from the dissensions 
and foreign wars which marked his reign something of 
the mishaps that have attended this house might be said 
to have been foreshadowed. 

26. What was the early history of Prussia? 

Ans. Prussia, like Austria, rose from an insignificant 
beginning, ranking far behind Austria in leadership until 
the middle of the nineteenth century. ^ Prussians were 
first known in history as Borussi in the tenth century. 
Bishop Adalbert from Prague suffered martyrdom while 
trying to convert them to Christianity in 997. About 
1018, Bolesias, Duke of Poland, succeeded in compelling 
their submission and baptism, but it was not till the middle 
of the thirteenth century that the Christian faith was 
established among them by the Teutonic Knights. 

26. Who were the Teutonic Knights? 

Ans. The Teutonic Knights were one of the three 
military religious orders of knighthood formed to assist 
during the Crusades, the others being the Knights Temp- 



I 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 23 

lars and the Knights Hospitallers of Malta or of St. John. 
They were an early form of Red Cross workers. Some 
merchants of Bremen and Lubeck, moved with compassion 
for wounded Crusaders, in 1190 created tent hospitals and 
provided surgical and nursing attendance. They were 
supported by the Duke of Swabia and his brother, the 
Emperor Henry VI, and were confirmed by the pope as 
a monastic order in 1191. Seven years later they changed 
into a knightly, or military, order, gaining the pope's 
approval in 1199. They bound themselves to tend the 
sick and wounded and to wage incessant war on the 
heathen. They wore white mantles with black crosses 
thereon. About 1225 the Duke of Masoira in Poland 
invited them to help him against the heathen Prussians 
and by 1283 they were masters of the territory between 
the Vistula and the Memel, beside holding parts of Livonia 
and Courland. In 1309 they established headquarters in 
Marienburg near the Vistula. They commenced a contest 
against the Lithuanians, who were soon converted to 
Christianity, and their prince became King of Poland in 
1386. The order then began to decline, its work being 
done, until it was suppressed throughout the German 
states by Napoleon in 1809, but three chapters still exist 
in Austria and Holland of a very aristocratic character 
in both countries. 

27. What are the next steps in the development of^ 
the Prussians after their subjugation and forcible Chris-' 
tianization by the Teutonic Knights? 

Ans. The noble and municipal classes of the Prussians, 
with the aid of Poland, rose in rebellion in 1454 and by 
1466 compelled the Knights to cede West Prussia to Poland 
and to regard the rest of their territories as fiefs of Poland. 

28. What was the main outcome to the world of the 
overthrow of Roman civilization and rule by tiie Teutonic 
tribes? 

Ans. For a few centuries after the fall of Rome, called 
the DarkAges (500-1100), civilization seemed crushed, but 
a subtle alchemy was suffusing and transfusing the mass; 
more was going on below the surface than appeared and 
when the Dark Ages were over a stronger, better race 
controlled Europe than the effete Romans of the first 



24 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

Christian centuries. Nearly all the Teutonic tribes em- 
braced Christianity before or soon after invading the 
empire. Gradually Roman law, civilization and even 
speech prevailed over ignorance and ruder ways; and 
France, Spain, and Germany appear to play their part, 
with Romance languages in France and Spain, and Roman 
law largely prevalent even in Germany. 

29. When did Christianity conquer Germany? 

Ans. The Goths were the first barbarians outside the 
empire to be won from paganism. Ulfilas translated the 
Bible into the Gothic tongue, omitting the " Book of 
Kings " for fear it would excite the martial spirit of his 
new converts by its stirring -recital of wars and battles. 
This translation is still preserved in Gotha and, as it is 
the oldest specimen of Gothic literature, is very valuable. 
Ulfilas showed marked ability in composing an alphabet 
of runic and Latin characters. He was a native Goth who 
had studied at Constantinople in the fourth century. 

30. What is meant by runic rhymes and characters? 

Ans. The Saxons, who invaded England in the fifth 
century, were of the low German origin. Many of their 
words were like the German of today and can be readily 
noticed in the English of today, as bruder, brother; 
schwester, sister; moder, mother; fader, father, etc. When 
written, the characters were called runes, or secrets, and 
very few could make them out. They were seldom used, 
and mainly on sword hilts, or charms or drinking horns. 

31. What prevented Germany from becoming a closely 
knit nation centuries ago? 

Ans. The great stumbling block in the Middle Ages 
that prevented Germany's" progress was her dream of 
becoming a world power, a dream that never came to 
fruition, but resulted in the most woeful consequences to 
Germany. " Trying to grasp too much, these rulers seized 
nothing at all. Attempting to be emperors of the world, 
they failed to become even kings of Germany." 

32. Who first after Charlemagne adopted the unfortu- 
nate policy of a world empire? 

Ans. Otto II of the Saxon line, crowned King of Ger- 
many at Aachen in 936, something more than a century 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 25 

after Charlemagne's death, became King of Italy as well 
as of Germany, wrested large tracts of land from the Sla- 
vonians and forced Danes, Poles, and Hungarians to ac- 
knowledge his suzerainty. Then this Otto the Great began 
to feel himself a second Charlemagne, and in 962, a century 
and a half and more after Charlemagne's coronation in 
Rome, Otto was crowned, in the same place by the same 
papal authority, Emperor of the Romans, thus holding 
three crowns at once, being German King, crowned at 
Aachen, King of Italy, crowned at Milan, and Emperor at 
Rome. It was a grand scheme ably played, but impractic- 
able. Home affairs were neglected during foreign wars 
and vassals succeeded in increasing their local power and 
making it hereditary. Italy, as well as Germany, suffered 
much by this policy. 

33. Was there no compensation for these injuries? 

Ans. Germany gained much from Italian civilization 
through the connection of the emperors with Italy. The 
art of Europe was then concentrated in Italy. 

34. Was this impracticable policy of Otto I continued 
by subsequent German rulers? 

Ans. The main feature of the Hohenstaufen, or Swa- 
bian, dynasty (1138-1254) was the continuance of the 
bitter conflict with the popes. It lasted over a hundred 
years ; it is known in history as the Wars of the Guelphs 
and Ghibellines, the former party, both in Italy and 
Germany, supporting the- popes, while the Ghibellines 
supported the emperors. It ended in the triumph of 
Rome and the utter ruin of the Hohenstaufens. 

35. What started the conflict between the successors 
of Charlemagne, who had championed the pope, and the 
later papacy? 

Ans. Hildebrand, or Gregory VII (1073-1080), was the 
greatest figure of the Middle Ages, except Charlemagne. 
He was a great reformer and advanced both the spiritual 
and the temporal power of the church. His decree that 
no ecclesiastic should do homage to a temporal lord, but 
must receive the symbols of investiture, the ring and 
staff, from the pope alone, was largely prompted by his 
effort to correct the evil of simony, or the bestowal of rich 
fiefs of church lands on court favorites or the highest 



26 HISTORY OF GERMx\NY AND AUSTRIA 

bidders. This attempt to restrict the power of feudal lords 
caused opposition from both the nobles and the emperors. 

36. What was the most famous case of the conflict 
between the kings of Germany and papal authority? 

Ans. Henry IV refused to recognize the papal decree 
concerning investiture, and even called a council of the 
German clergy and deposed the pope. The pope by a 
council at Rome deposed and excommunicated Henry. 
This gave some of Henry's vassals a chance to revolt. 
The king was abandoned by all good churchmen as a man 
accursed. All his authority and his kingdom were slipping 
out of his grasp. In desperation he sought the pope among 
Apennine snows of winter and for three days stood in 
a courtyard in sackcloth with bare feet till the pope was 
ready to see him. 

37. How much was Germany broken apart as the result 
of its fatal foreign policy? 

Ans. By the close of the Hohenstaufen period, 1268, 
Germany had separated into no less than two hundred 
and seventy-six states, each virtually independent, whose 
princes and nobles had taken advantage of the absences 
of the emperors, or of their troubles with the popes, to free 
themselves from the control of the crown. There was no 
longer either a German kingdom or a Roman kingdom. 

38. Did the Hohenstaufen period have no attractive 
feature of mark? 

Ans. The age of the Hohenstaufens was the age of the 
Crusades, of the heroic Barbarossa, and, above all, of the 
splendid cathedral buildings which expressed the fervent 
religious enthusiasm of the German people; the beautiful 
Strasburg Cathedral was begun in the eleventh century 
and the massive Cathedral of Cologne in 1248. 

39. What earlier history is suggested by the name 
Cologne? 

Ans. The name Cologne indicates a Roman colony 
located there before the fall of Rome, in order to keep the 
Germans from crossing into the Roman Empire, which 
then extended to the Rhine. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 27 

40. What finally ended the Hohenstaufen rule after 
more than a century's control? 

Ans. Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190), who lost his 
life in the Third Crusade, was succeeded by his son, Henry 
VI (1190-1197), who by marriage acquired a claim to the 
Kingdom of Sdcily. Almost all his time and resources were 
expended in reducing that remote realm to his authority. 
In 1265 the pope gave it as a fief to Charles I of Anjou, 
brother of Louis IX of France, who, in 1268, beheaded the 
boy king, Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen race. 

41. How did the House of Hapsburg get its name? 

Ans. The House of Hapsburg, today the oldest ruling 
royal family on the continent, is so called from a castle in 
German Switzerland, where the family originated. 

42. How did the House of Hapsburg regain much of 
the lost strength of Germany? 

Ans. In the year 1438 Albert, Duke of Austria, was 
raised to the imperial throne of Germany by the seven 
electors who had usurped the right of choosing their king. 
From the accession of Albert, the imperial crown was 
regarded as hereditary in the Hapsburg family until the 
German (or Holy Roman) empire .was dissolved by Na- 
poleon in 1806. The electors always met on the death of 
an emperor and went through the formality of an election, 
but almost always chose one of the House of Austria (or 
Hapsburg) to the position. So by this almost uninter- 
rupted occupation of the imperial throne the power and 
importance of the family increased until it looked as if 
Austria would rule all Germany as Francia ruled all Gaul 
or France. 

43. Who was the first prominent ruler of the House of 
Hapsburg? 

Ans. Maximilian I (1493-1519) was active, ambitious 
and scheming, though somewhat lacking in persistency. 
He married Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold of Bur- 
gundy, and by her acquired possession of the Nether- 
lands, became involved in the politics of Europe. His 
reign also marked the beginning of the Reformation under 
Luther, which he opposed. By the marriage of his son 
'Philip with Joanna of Spain the Houses of Austria and 



28 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

Spain were united and Charles I of Spain, son of Philip, 
became the celebrated Charles V of the empire. He 
united Spain, Austria, the Netherlands, and the Empire of 
Germany under his sole control 1519, making the House of 
Hapsburg the most powerful dynasty in the world. But 
Charles later resigned all his German territories to his 
brother Ferdinand. 

44. What were the relations of Austria with Switzer- 
land? 

Ans. As the House of Austria sprang from Hapsburg 
in Switzerland, and as Switzerland w^as a part of the Holy 
Roman Empire from the early eleventh century, the 
Dukes of Austria tried to enforce their authority there, 
but the Swiss would only acknowledge the emperor as 
their master and yielded him only a nominal obedience. 
In 1315 the hardy mountaineers severely defeated the 
Austrians at Morgarten Pass and again at Sempach, 1386. 
A third victory at Wafels, 1388, placed the Swiss confed- 
eration on a firm basis. The legend, or myth, of William 
Tell belongs to this conflict. 

45. Was Austrians strong opposition to the Reformation 
the first act of the kind in Germany? 

Ans. About the beginning of the fifteenth century the 
doctrines of the English reformer Wycliffe began to spread 
in Bohemia. John Huss, a professor in the University of 
Prague, was the leader of the new sect called Hussites. 
His doctrines were condemned by the Council of Con- 
stance and he was burnt at the stake in 1415. Jerome of 
Prague was likewise burnt and a cruel, desolating war of 
extermination follow^ed, lasting for fifteen years. 

46. What was the beginning of the Reformation that 
made such great changes in Germany? 

Ans. In 1517 Martin Luther, an Augustine monk and 
teacher of theology in the University of Wittenberg, 
nailed a document containing ninety-five theses, or articles, 
to the door of the church in Wittenberg, wherein he boldly 
stated his views respecting indulgences (papal pardons 
for sins) and challenged criticism by scholars. By means 
of the press his opinions were rapidly spread throughout 
every country in Europe. Soon Luther attacked the 
entire system and teaching of the Roman Catholic church. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 29 

47. What were the results of Luther's acts? 

Ans. The pope, Leo X, issued a bull against the auda- 
cious reformer, 1520. Luther burnt the papal bull at one of 
the gates of Wittenberg. In 1521 the pope asked the aid 
of the new emperor, Charles the Fifth, in stamping out 
the spreading heresy. Charles summoned the famous 
Diet of Worms; Luther appeared under the safe-conduct 
of the emperor but was denounced as a heretical author. 
His own prince, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, 
protected him by keeping him concealed for a year. 

48. What further results followed later after the Diet 
of Worms? 

Ans. The peasants of Swabia and Franconia, stung by 
the oppression of their feudal lords and stirred by the 
religious excitement in the air and the incendiary preach- 
ing of their own prophets, rose in revolt against nobles 
and priests. This rebellion was crushed in a year but cost 
one hundred thousand lives; a large part of south Germany 
was ravaged and much reproach was cast on the reformers, 
whose teachings were held by their enemies as responsible 
for the revolt. 

49. What was the origin of the name Protestant? 

Ans. As the doctrines of Luther continued to spread, 
notwithstanding all efforts to suppress them, the Diet of 
Spires in 1529 forbade all persons doing anything to spread 
the new doctrines until the church should investigate and 
pronounce on them. Seven German princes and a large 
number of cities issued formal protests against this action 
of the Diet ; hence from this time the reformers were known 
as Protestants. 

50. What checked the spread of Protestantism which 
had taken such a start in Germany? 

Ans. The spread of Protestantism in Germany and 
elsewhere was checked by the numerous sectarian divisions 
among the Protestants; by the vigorous Catholic counter- 
reform, which quite thoroughly removed the causes of 
dissension; and by the activity of the new order of Jesuits 
founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish soldier, who 
organized an institution whose members should by their 
zeal counteract the work of the Protestant reformers. 



30 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

51. What was the general outcome of the Reformation 
in Germany? 

Ans. The main result of the religious revolt of the 
early sixteenth century was the separation from the Roman 
Catholic church of the northern, or Teutonic, nations; 
that is, of northern Germany, portions of Switzerland, the 
Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, as well as 
England and Scotland. One-half of western Christendom 
was lost to Rome. But the Romance nations of Spain, 
France, Italy, Teutonic Austria, and Celtic Ireland still 
adhere to the mother church. 

62. How did the Prussian Kingdom come into existence? 

Ans. In 1611 the mark, or electorate, of Brandenburg 
and the duchy of Prussia united; Brandenburg had been 
slowly growing into prominence since the tenth century. 
Near the beginning of the sixteenth century its ruler was 
a prince of the House of Hohenzollern and one of the 
seven princes to whom belonged the right of electing the 
German emperor; In 1640 Frederick William, called the 
Great Elector, came to the electorate and infused much 
vigor into the state, greatly enhancing his prominence 
among German princes. He ruled from 1640 to 1688 and 
in the Peace of Westphalia, 1648, at the termination of the 
Thirty Years' War, he was able to gain new territory and 
finally to leave to his son, Frederick III, a standing army 
and a strongly centralized and despotic authority. This 
son- of the Great Elector, Frederick III (1688-1713) was 
ambitious for the title of king. It was necessary to gain 
the consent of the emperor, a somewhat difficult matter, 
as the Catholic court of Austria was naturally opposed 
both on political and religious grounds to the elevation 
of an heretical prince; but on the condition of assisting the 
emperor in the war of the Spanish succession, just then 
beginning, the new title and dignity were permitted in the 
duchy of Prussia which did not form part of the empire as 
Brandenburg did. So in 1701 Frederick was crowned king 
at Konigsburg. He had been Elector of Brandenburg and 
Duke of Prussia; now he retained the first designation 
coupled with that of King of Prussia. Thus did the House 
of Hapsburg in Catholic Austria create and invest with 
royal dignity the rival House of Hohenzollern. 



i 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 31 

53. What were the nature and cause of the Thirty 
Years' War? 

Ans. The Thirty Years' War was the last great struggle 
between Protestantism and Catholicism in Europe. It 
started in Germany and gradually involved almost all 
the states of the continent and degenerated into a shame- 
ful, cruel struggle for power and land. Both parties were 
to blame at the start by encroaching on each other. The 
Protestants formed a protective league called the Union in 
1608; the CathoHcs followed with the Holy League in 1609. 

54. Where and how did the Thirty Years* War begin? 
Ans. In Bohemia, where the embers of the Hussite 

religious burnings of two centuries before still smouldered; 
the Protestants rose against their Catholic king, elected a 
new one and drove out the Jesuits. The war had begun; 
this was in 1618, a trifle over a century since Luther had 
posted his theses on the court church at Wittenberg. 
Perhaps nine-tenths of the population of the empire were 
Protestants at the end of the century. 

55. What was the next phase of the Thirty Years' War 
after the Bohemian period? 

Ans. Ferdinand, the Catholic King of Bohemia, was 
elected Emperor of Germany and was thereby able to 
crush the Protestant insurrection in his royal domain. 
All the Protestant -rulers took alarm and Christian IV of 
Denmark, supported by England and Holland, came for- 
ward as the champion of Protestantism. This was in 
1625. The leaders of the other side were Tilly, leader of 
the forces of the Holy League, and Wallenstein, commander 
of the imperial army. Christian was defeated and by the 
Peace of Lubeck, 1629, retired, and the emperor restored 
to the Catholics all lands and offices in north Germany 
which the Protestants had taken possession of contrary 
to the Peace of Augsburg. By the Edict of Restitution, 
1629, two archbishoprics, twelve bishoprics, many mon- 
asteries and much other ecclesiastical property were given 
back to the Catholic church. This terminated the second, 
or Danish, period of the war. 

56. What was the third period of the Thirty Years' 
War? 

Ans. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, now ap- 
peared in northern Germany witlta veteran army of 16,000 



32 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

Swedes, as the champion of the leaderless Protestants; ■ 
but the Protestant princes were slow in joining Gustavus ■ 
from fear of the emperor, lack of confidence in the great 
Swede's motives, and from warring jealousy. Tilly was 
besieging Magdeburg, which had dared to resist the Edict 
of Restitution. The Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony, 
though Protestant, hindered Gustavus instead of helping 
him and Magdeburg was sacked and burnt; thirty thou- 
sand inhabitants perished miserably. This alarmed the i 
Protestant princes and the Elector of Saxony joined the ] 
Swedish king and Tilly was severely defeated at Leipsic 
in 16^1; in a later battle, 1632, the emperor lost this most 
trustworthy general. Wallenstein had been dismissed on 
account of discontent and jealousies but was now recalled 
and given sole command. With forty thousand men he 
attacked the Swedes at Lutzen in Saxony, 1632. The 
Swedes won but Gustavus was killed. 

57. What was the concluding period of the Thirty 
Years' War? 

Ans. The war might have ended after the death of 
Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 and the assassination of Wal- 
lenstein in 1634, for both sides were tired of it, but the 
astute Cardinal Richelieu of France wanted the House of 
Austria thoroughly crippled and he encouraged the 
Swedes to continue. So the war became a struggle between 
the House of Austria for its very existence and the House ^ 
of Bourbon for territory. 

58. When was the Peace of Westphalia? 

Ans. Richelieu died in 1643 and whisperings of peace 
were heard at once, but so complicated were the affairs 
and bounds of the states of central Europe that it was 
five years before the articles of peace were signed in 1648 
by the different powers. 

59. What were the terms of the Treaty of West- 
phalia? 

Ans. Switzerland and the United Provinces were sepa- 
rated from the Holy Roman Empire. A large part of 
Alsace and Metz, Trent and Verdun in Lorraine were 
given to France. Sweden obtained a valuable strip in 
northern Germany along the Baltic. But this strip still 



"- Sweden 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 33 



remained a part of the German Empire and the King of 
Sweden became a prince of the empire. Brandenburg 
received considerable territory. 

CathoHcs, Lutherans, and Calvinists were put on an 
equal footing. The Protestants were to return all the 
benefices and property they had controlled in 1624. 
Every prince had the right to enforce his own religion on 
his people and banish all who refused to conform, allowing 
three years in which to emigrate. The different states 
were left in a lax confederation almost independent of the 
emperor. 

60. What was the effect of the Thirty Years' War on 
Germany? 

Ans. It is impossible to picture the wretched condition 
of Germany after the Thirty Years' War. The population 
had fallen from thirty million to twelve million. Many of 
its best cities were reduced to shells; two or three hundred 
ill-clad people constituted the population of Berlin. The 
duchy of Wiirttemberg had but fifty thousand left out of 
five hundred thousand people. The palaces of the nobility 
and the hovels of the peasants were alike charred. Many 
commercial lines had been abandoned and some trades 
and industries annihilated. Painting, sculpture and archi- 
tecture had been driven out of the land. Education was 
neglected. For a generation men had been engaged in 
war. Their children grew up in ignorance. Moral law was 
forgotten. Vice, nourished in the licentious atmosphere of 
the camp, reigned supreme. " In character, intelligence, 
and morality Germany was set back two hundred years." 

61. What was the effect on the House of Austria? 

Ans. The House of Austria still bore the title of emperor 
but it was an empty name. The German states lost what 
little cohesion had been gained and became a loose assem- 
blage of over two hundred states; the subjects of the petty 
states became the victims of tyrannical rulers. German 
patriotism was dead; pride of race and country seemed 
extinct. 

62. Why is the Peace of Westphalia to be regarded as 
a great landmark in universal history? 

Ans. The Peace of Westphalia marks the end of reli- 
gious wars caused by the Reformation and the beginning of 



34 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

political revolutions. Henceforth, men have fought for 
constitutions, not creeds. 

63. What changes took place in the electors of the 
German emperors? 

Ans. As has already been explained, the right of elec- 
tion became restricted in the thirteenth century to the 
holders of the highest ecclesiastical and civil offices, some 
of which became hereditary and connected with territorial 
principalities, as in the case of the Hohenstaufens and the 
Dukes of Bavaria, Saxony, Swabia, etc. Thus there came 
to be seven electors, viz.^ the Bishops of Mainz, Treves, 
and Cologne, the Elector of the Palatinate at Heidelberg, 
the Elector of Brandenburg, the Elector of Saxony and the 
Elector of Westphalia. During the Thirty Years' War, the 
electoral rights of the Palatinate were conferred on Ba- 
varia. By the Peace of Westphalia, Bavaria and the Palati- 
nate were each allowed an elector, making eight, and in 
1692 Hanover made a ninth. In 1777, the Bavarian elec- 
torate went back to the Elector Palatine, leaving eight. 
The electors held a very high dignity in the empire, 
since by them the emperors were selected, but as a matter 
of fact their choice was practically confined to the reign- 
ing family; thus the Hapsburg House of Austria secured 
the election nearly every time one occurred. Later, only 
Mainz remained of the old eight, but Baden, Wiirttemberg, 
Hesse-Cassel and, later, Salzburg, made a new group of 
five. With the dissolution of the empire, the dignity 
expired, though the rulers of Hesse-Cassel continued to 
retain the title till 1866. 

64. When did Prussia first become a strong rival of 
Austria? 

Ans. The Great Elector Frederick William at his death 
in 1688 left a well-filled treasury, a well-drilled army of 
forty-three thousand and a population of a million and a 
half, and Prussia henceforth ranked as a great European 
power. His successors, Frederick I (1688-1713) and 
Frederick William I (1713-40) increased the power and 
reputation of Prussia, which had become a kingdom in 
1701. Frederick II (1740-86) raised Prussia to the 
rank of one of the leading political powers of Europe. 



i 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 35 

65. What were the peculiarities of Frederick William I 
of Prussia? 

Ans. Frederick William I was one of the most extraor- 
dinary characters in history. He was a violent, brutal 
man who would tolerate no idlers. He carried a heavy 
cane which he laid on the back of any idle man, woman or 
child whom he met. He greatly prized big soldiers. He 
had a regiment of two thousand four hundred men called 
" the Potsdam Giants," some of them eight feet in height. 
Europe was searched for them and they were coaxed, 
bribed or kidnapped. Princes bought substantial favors 
by the gift of a giant. Rough tyrant though he was, he 
was able and energetic and left at his death in 1740 a well- 
drilled army of eighty thousand men and a well-consoli- 
dated kingdom. 

66. When did the rapidly growing Prussia first clash 
with older Austria? 

Ans. In 1740 Charles VI, the last direct male repre- 
sentative of the House of Hapsburg, that had governed 
Austria for centuries and usually furnished an emperor 
for Germany in addition, died and left his hereditary 
possessions, Bohemia, Hungary, and Austria, to his 
daughter, Maria Theresa. At Charles' death a favorable 
opportunity was seized by Frederick the Great of Prussia 
to make an attack upon the Austrian possessions. 

67. What was the Pragmatic Sanction? 

Ans. The Pragmatic Sanction was an agreement with 
the leading nations of Europe by which Charles the Sixth 
endeavored to secure for his daughter the thrones from 
which she would have been barred by the " Salic law " 
which restricted the royal inheritance to male heirs. 

68. What nations aligned themselves against Austria 
in the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740-48? 

Ans. Frederick II, son of the eccentric Frederick Wil- 
liam, came to the throne of Prussia the same year that 
Maria Theresa occupied the throne of Austria. Frederick 
immediately led his well-drilled army into Silesia and 
succeeded in holding it and having his acquisition acknowl- 
edged in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748. Charles 
Albert, Elector of Bavaria, laid claim to the archduchy 



36 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

of Austria and was backed in that demand by forces from 
France, always the sworn foe of the Hapsburgs. 

69. What did the Queen of Austria do against the un- 
expected attack? 

Ans. Maria Theresa, stripped of a large slice of her do- 
minions, fled into Hungary and appealed, with a beautiful 
woman's power, to her subjects there to avenge her wrongs. 
Moved by her sufferings, her beauty, her tears, the babe 
in her arms, the Hungarian nobles, as they rattled their 
swords in their scabbards, swore to support her cause with 
their lives and possessions. England and Sardinia also 
championed her cause. The war closed in 1748 with Maria 
Theresa secure on her throne, but left Silesia added to 
Prussia. 

70. How did Frederick II acquire the title of ** the 
Great " ? 

Ans. Frederick II had a genius for war, was master of 
a matchless army, and showed skill and prowess in the 
War of the Austrian Succession, but it was the Seven Years' 
War of 1756 to 1763 that proved that the armies of Prussia 
had one of the great commanders of the world at their 
head. 

71. How did Frederick get into this second war? 

Ans. After the War of the Austrian Succession, Frederick 
spent eight years in developing his resources and Maria 
Theresa spent a like time in organizing a league against 
him. France, Russia, Poland, Saxony, and Sweden joined 
her and for a time Frederick was hard pressed. 

72. What were the main features and results of the 
Seven Years' War? 

Ans. At first Frederick won everything. In three suc- 
cessive battles he defeated the French, the Austrians, and 
the Russians. He had England, who had opposed him in 
the previous War of the Austrian Succession, for an ally 
and her wealth was poured into his coffers. But in time 
his country was drained of men. England withdrew her 
aid and ruin stared Frederick in the face. In 1762 the 
Russian Empress Elizabeth died and under Peter III, an 
admirer of Frederick, Russia at once changed sides. The 




HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 37 



alliance was very short-lived, as Peter was murdered and 
succeeded by his wife, the famous Catherine II, who 
turned her armies back against Frederick. But the few 
months' brief turn of fortune helped Frederick; England 
and France wearied of the war, especially as England had 
won control of French America, and signed the Peace of 
Paris, 1763. By the Peace of Hubertsburg (1763) peace was 
established between Prussia and Austria and one of the 
worst wars of Europe was over. 

73. What is a brief summary of Frederick II's reign? 

Ans. Frederick the Great reigned for forty-six years; 
in the first twenty-three years, by two wars, he succeeded 
in exalting Prussia to a commanding position in European 
affairs and in the second half of his long reign he laid a 
new basis of German unity by making Prussia, around 
which Germany had hitherto unsuccessfully tried to 
concentrate, the equal of Austria. From 1763 the two 
countries were rivals for German leadership, with the final 
triumph going to Prussia. 

74. What part did Germany take in the French Revo- 
lution which occurred soon after Frederick II*s death? 

Ans. When the French Revolutionists rose against 
Louis XVI, the kings of Europe resolved that the move- 
ment which threatened all aristocratical and monarchical 
institutions should be crushed and that the heretical 
doctrines about the sovereignty of the people and the 
rights of man should be proved false by force of arms. 
Frederick William III of Prussia and Francis II of Austria, 
with allied armies numbering over one hundred thousand, 
crossed the French border, but were promptly met by the 
French and defeated at Valmy, September 20, 1792, 
causing their hasty retreat beyond the French border. 

75. What was Germany's experience with Napoleon? 

Ans. In 1796-97 Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 
northern Italy and formed there a commonwealth called 
the Cisalpine Republic; then, by his invasion of Austria 
proper, Austria was forced to cede her Belgian provinces 
to the French Republic, as well as important provinces 
west of the Rhine. When Napoleon became first consul 
in 1799, neither England nor Austria would acknowledge 
his government. This resulted in the second defeat of 



38 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

Austria in Italy at Marengo, and in 1801 Francis II 
signed a treaty of peace, making the Rhine the boundary 
between France and Germany. After Napoleon became 
emperor in 1804 and the coalition of England, Russia, 
Austria, and Sweden was formed against him. Napoleon 
a third time defeated Austria at Austerlitz. Sixteen Ger- 
man states declaring themselves independent were formed 
into a league caUed the Confederation of the Rhine, with 
Napoleon as protector. Francis II also was obliged to give 
up the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. 

76. When was the second Holy Roman Empire dis- 
solved and how long had it existed? 

Ans. The Holy Roman Empire, revived by Otto the 
Great, came to an end in 1806 after an existence of over 
eight centuries. The Kingdom of Germany, created by the 
partition of the empire of Charlemagne, also passed out of 
existence. 

77. Did Prussia fare any better than Austria against the 
genius of Napoleon? 

Ans. At Jena and Auerstadt in 1806, Napoleon over- 
threw Frederick William III, almost annihilating what the 
genius of Frederick the Great had created, accomplishing 
in a month what combined Europe had failed to do in the 
Seven Years' War. By the Treaty of Tilsit, Prussia lost 
more than half her domain and the Kingdom of West- 
phalia was formed. Napoleon's brother, Jerome, being 
made its king. Prussian Poland, called the Grand Duchy 
of Warsaw, was given to vSaxony; the. rest of Prussia was 
practically a French, dependency. 

78. What was the Berlin Decree? 

Ans. The Berlin Decree issued by Napoleon while in 
Berlin was an attempt to strike England through her com- 
merce by closing all the ports of Europe. It forbade any 
of the European nations holding any intercourse with 
Great Britain, whose ports he declared to be in a state of 
blockade. 

79. Did Austria or Prussia have further conflicts with 
Napoleon? 

Ans. In 1809, Napoleon was trying to establish his 
brother Joseph upon the throne of Spain against the 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 39 

opposition of the high-spirited Spaniards, who were aided 
by Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards Duke of WelHngton. 
Francis II of Austria gathered half a miUion men and 
declared war on Napoleon, but after a brief campaign, in 
which Wagram was the principal battle, Napoleon entered 
Vienna for a second time as conqueror and Austria was 
further dismembered. The next year Napoleon married 
Marie Louise, daughter of Francis II of Austria. 

80. What part did Germany take in Napoleon's over- 
throw? 

Ans. After Napoleon's disastrous campaign in Russia 
in 1813 the powers of Europe ventured into a sixth coali- 
tion, embracing at first Russia, Prussia, England, and 
Sweden. Napoleon was able to defeat this combination at 
Lutzen but, on Austria's joining the other allies, Napoleon 
suffered his first square defeat on the field of Leipsic. The 
battle lasted three days and has been called the Battle of 
the Nations. After this defeat Napoleon was compelled 
to abdicate and was banished to the Island of Elba in the 
Mediterranean. 

81. What happened after Napoleon's abdication?' 

Ans. The Congress of Vienna tried for nearly a year 
to straighten out the much disjointed map of Europe. 
The only thought seemed to be to put things as they were 
before the Revolution. There was no thought for the 
people, only regard for the claims of princes. Germany, 
like Italy, was divided among a horde of petty tyrants, 
but the divine right of kings had received a blow from 
which it was impossible fully to recover. 

82. If Napoleon was beaten at Leipsic and banished to 
Elba, where does Waterloo come in? 

Ans. In March, 1815, while the Congress at Vienna was' 
rearranging landmarks and boundaries. Napoleon escaped 
from Elba, hastening to Paris, where he was received with 
joy. He desired peace, but a seventh league was formed 
against him. He won one battle over Bliicher and the 
Prussians; but Wellington and Bliicher together proved 
too strong even for the great Napoleon and his power was 
finally and completely crushed at Waterloo on June 18, 
1815. Surrendering himself to the English king, he was 
banished to St. Helena, where he remained until his death. 



40 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

83. What was the organization of Germany after the 
Napoleonic era? 

Ans. The German states, thirty-nine in number, were 
organized by the Congress of Vienna as a confederation 
with the Emperor of Austria as president. A diet com- 
posed of representatives was to settle all matters of dis- 
pute or of general interest. Each state was to retain 
independence in its own affairs; it might form alliances 
with foreign states or even make war upon them, provided 
it did no harm to its confederates. All religious sects 
were to enjoy toleration and every state must grant a 
constitution. 

84. How well did the scheme of the German confed- 
eration work? 

Ans. The rulers in the German confederation opposed 
all changes that would give the people any part in the 
government; they were wedded to the old order of things, 
while the German people were moved more and more 
toward freedom and unity. So when the French expelled 
the Bourbon king, Charles X, in 1830 there were sym- 
pathetic demonstrations in Germany, and the princes of 
the smaller states were compelled to give their people 
the constitutions that had been promised, but which 
they had thus far refused or neglected to bestow. 

85. What was the Customs Union? 

Ans. About 1830 the Customs Union was formed 
which bound those belonging to it to adopt the policy of 
free trade among themselves, and eventually all the 
states except Austria joined it. This taught the people 
to think of a more perfect national union in much the 
same way as the people of the United States developed 
the present constitution out of the confederation of 1781. 

86. What was the effect of the Customs Union on 
Prussia and Austria? 

Ans. As Prussia was a strong promoter and the center 
of the trade agreement, the Germans commenced to look 
to her as their leader and chief. 

87. What was the next step in the development of 
modem Germany? 

Ans. In 1848, when another uprising in France estab- 
lished a new republic, the Liberal Party in Germany arose 




HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 41 



everywhere and demanded constitutional government. 
In several states constitutions had been annulled or 
ignored. Now almost all the princes were obliged to 
adopt the reform demanded. In Austria and Prussia there 
was some bloodshed, but the Liberal Party was successful. 
The Prime Minister of Austria, Prince Metternich, was 
forced to flee the country for opposing the Liberals. 

88. What changes took place in Germany after the 
liberalizing Revolution of 1848? 

Ans. Austria had a severe struggle with her Hun- 
■ garian subjects when the distinguished orator Kossuth 
roused the people to declare independence. After a noble 
fight for a year, the Hungarians were crushed and Hun- 
gary became a second Poland. Prussia, meantime, pro- 
posed a plan for the unification of Germany, with herself 
at the head of the confederation, from which Austria 
should be excluded. Though Austria had been made the 
presiding state of the German confederation in 1815 by 
the Congress of Vienna, Prussia was actually its most 
powerful member. Several states now joined her and 
formed the German Union. 

89. What was the result of Prussia's ** stolen base '* 
of unification? 

Ans. Austria watched this move with concern and, as 
soon as she had settled the Hungarian difficulty, made a 
counter move by forming a confederation of all the states 
that were willing to accept her leadership. 

90. What changes in Prussia preceded the war for 
supremacy? 

Ans. In 1861 Frederick William IV of Prussia died and 
his brother William, ah-eady sixty, became king. He 
made the famous Bismarck prime minister, a despotic 
conservative who beHeved in a poHcy of '' blood and iron." 

91. What war followed and what were its chief inci- 
dents? 

Ans. In 1866 a dispute arose between the rival states 
as to the control of Schleswig and Holstein, two petty 
provinces, freshly snatched from Denmark. The smaller 
states mostly aligned themselves with Austria, but Italy 



42, HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

was glad to help Prussia on account of her own interests 
in Austrian Italy. The population of Prussia was less 
than twenty million, while that of the Austrian confedera- 
tion was three times as many. But William I, Bismarck 
and Von Moltke astonished the world by starting war 
with a quarter of a million men in the middle of June, 
winning battle after battle. Finally, on the third of July, 
by the battle of Sadowa in Bohemia, the Emperor of 
Austria was forced to sue for peace after less than a 
month's conflict. 

92. What was Prussia's next move after disposing 
of her only rival, Austria? 

Ans. The North German Union was organized in 1867, 
Prussia being its president and having command of the 
entire military force of the union. A constitution was 
adopted providing for a diet composed of members 
chosen by the different states, to manage the affairs of 
the union. 

93. What was still lacking for full unification in 
Germany? 

Ans. The large states south of the Main, — Baden, 
Bavaria, and Wiirttemberg, — mostly Catholic, were 
strongly opposed to Prussia's exaltation to the chief rank, 
as she was a Protestant state, while many disliked the 
despotic character of Prussia's government. 

94. What fervid heat finally welded all Germany into 
its present unity? 

Ans. Napoleon III, Emperor of France, had viewed 
the rise of power of the Prussian House of Hohenzollern 
with intense jealousy and was anxious also to emulate 
his great uncle's military fame by a second conquest of 
Germany. An excuse for war was found in the offer of 
the throne of Spain to Leopold, a prince of Prussia, Na- 
poleon claiming that this was a plot to unite Spain and 
Austria, as once before under Charles V. 

95. Was Germany eager for the fight with France? 

Ans. Leopold, rather than give offense to France, 
declined the proffered crown, but Napoleon then demanded 
assurance that no Hohenzollern would ever seek the 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 43 

Spanish throne. The request was rudely made and was 
naturally denied, as incompatible with the self-respect 
of a powerful nation. 

96. What were the consequences? 

Ans. North and south Germany rushed with equal 
eagerness to defend the honor of the Fatherland. French 
armies invaded Germany but were hurled back and 
pushed back to Paris with great momentum. A large 
French army was defeated at Gravelotte in August, 1870; 
Napoleon himself was captured at Sedan. Prussians be- 
sieged Paris and, after a few months' investment, it sur- 
rendered in June, 1871. 

97. What were the terms of surrender? 

Ans. That France should surrender the main portion 
of Alsace and Lorraine, pay an indemnity of one billion 
dollars and allow parts of France to be occupied by. 
German troops until the fine was paid. 

98. Just how was the new Empire of Germany the 
result of the Franco-Prussian War? 

Ans. While the siege of Paris was going on, commis- 
sioners from Baden, Bavaria, and Wiirttemberg, the 
states of southern Germany, were sent to King William's 
headquarters at Versailles, expressing their desire to be 
received into the North German Union. This was allowed 
and the name changed to the German Confederation. 
Then, on the suggestion of the King of Bavaria, King 
Wilham of Prussia, president of the confederation, was 
given the hereditary title of German Emperor. 

99. What relation is William II of Germany to 
William I? 

Ans. William I, first emperor of the new Germany, 
died in 1888 and was succeeded by the Crown Prince 
Frederick, his popular oldest son, who had won renown 
in the war with France. He had married the daughter of 
Victoria and so was brother-in-law to Edward VII of 
England. Frederick III died of cancer of the throat 
three months after accession and was succeeded by his 
son, the present Kaiser William II. 



44 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

100. What relation, then, is the Emperor of Germany 
to George V of England? 

Ans. First cousin. 

101. What relation are the Kaiser of Germany and 
the Tsar of Russia? 

Ans. No blood relation, but the dowager Empress of 
Russia, the mother of the Tsar, was a sister of Queen 
Alexandra, the mother of George V. The Tsarina of 
Russia is a first cousin of the Kaiser, being the daughter 
of the late Princess Alice of England, a daughter of Queen 
Victoria, who married the Grand Unke of Hesse. 

102. Has the Kaiser any other close relationship in- 
volved in the war? 

Ans. The Queen of Greece is a sister of the Kaiser 
and has steadily used her influence to keep Greece from 
joining the Allies. The Queen of Roumania is his first 
cousin. 

103. Of how many imits is the present German Empire 
composed? 

Ans. Germany is a confederation of twenty-five states 
and one common imperial province. 

104. Do the twenty-five or twenty-six different states 
have equal rank and the same form of local government 
as is the case in the federal union of the United States 
and its common District of Columbia? 

Ans. No. In the German confederation there are four 
kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven princi- 
palities, three free towns and one reichsland, viz.y Alsace- 
Lorraine. 

105. What four kingdoms are included in the German 
Empire? 

Ans. Prussia, by far the largest, most populous and 
powerful; Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirttemberg. 

106. How do these four kingdoms compare in size and 
population with our larger United States? 

Ans. Prussia is about the size of California, our second 
largest state, but has over 40,000,000 people, or about 
four times as many as New York state, our most populous 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 45 

state. Bavaria is about the size of New England, if 
Maine is left 9ut, and its population of 7,000,000 is not 
much different from the five New England states. Saxony- 
is considerably smaller than Massachusetts, but has 
1,000,000 more people than the Bay State and is the most 
congested section of the empire. Wiirttemberg is some- 
what smaller than Massachusetts and inferior also in 
population, though holding over 2,500,000. 

107. What are the leading grand duchies, and how 
large and populous are they? 

Ans. Baden, Hesse, and Mecklenburg-Schwerin are 
the only ones larger than Rhode Island in size or popula- 
tion; Baden is as large as Saxony, but has less than half 
as many people; Hesse is not much different from Rhode 
Island in size and population. Mecklenburg-Schwerin is 
nearly as large as Saxony, but has only two-thirds of a 
million inhabitants. 

108. Which is the largest of the duchies and what is its 
size and population? 

Ans. Brunswick, the largest of the duchies, has about 
the size and population of Delaware. 

109. Are the seven principalities of the German Empire 
important? 

Ans. None of the German principalities has an area 
of 500 square miles or over 200,000 inhabitants. 

110. What are the three free towns of the German 
empire? 

Ans. Hamburg, with a population of over 1,000,000; 
Bremen, with some 300,000; and Lubeck, with less than 
150,000. 

111. Are the other cities in Germany larger than the 
free towns? 

Ans. Berlin, the capital, has over 2,000,000 inhabi- 
tants; Munich, capital of Wiirttemberg, has over 600,000, 
and so has Leipsic in Saxony; Dresden, capital of Saxony, 
Cologne on the Rhine, and Breslau all have about 600,000 
each, There are about fifty towns with over 100,000 each, 



46 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

112. What are the area and population of the whole 
empire? 

Ans, In 1871, the time of the defeat of France, the 
population was about 41,000,000; in 1910, 65,000,000. 
The area o! the German Empire is somewhat over 200,000 
square miles, or considerably less than that of Texas, and 
not a very great deal more than that of California. Of 
this area considerably more than half belongs to Prussia, 
as does also considerably more than half the population. 

113. Do all the inhabitants of the empire speak the 
German language? 

Ans. About 93 per cent of the inhabitants of the 
empire speak the German language, the principal excep- 
tion being four or five million Poles in east and northeast 
Prussia. 

114. When did Hungary become a part of the Austro- 
Hungarian Empire? 

Ans. In 1526 the Turks, under Soliman the Great, 
annihilated the Hungarian forces and carried off 30,000 
Hungarians as slaves. The king, Louis II, was killed in 
or soon after the disastrous battle, and the throne became 
the prize of contending claimants, falling eventually to 
the Hapsburgs in the person of Ferdinand of Austria. 

115. Where did the Hungarians come from and when? 

Ans. Not much is known about them before their 
appearance in Europe toward the end of the ninth century. 
They are generally believed to be the descendants of the 
ancient Scythians and to have come from the region of 
the Caspian Sea. They first settled along the middle 
Volga, but, under pressure westward, crossed the Car- 
pathian Mountains and conquered the ancient Pannonia 
and Dacia of the Romans; and in the year 1000 were 
formed into a regular kingdom by Stephen, who was 
made a saint by Pope Sylvester II for his efforts in Chris- 
tianizing his people. The title of " Apostolic King " and 
the crown, both given by the pope, have been used since 
by all Hungarian kings. 

116. When was Hungary at its best as an independent 
nation? 

Ans. In 1301 the house of Arpad, reigning for over 
three hundred years, became extinct and after much 



I 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 47 

rivalry and various vicissitudes, Hungary was fortunate 
in gaining a good king in Charles Robert of Anjou, France, 
who did much to civilize his adopted country; and his 
son Louis the Great made Hungary the most powerful 
nation of central Europe in the middle of the fourteenth 
century. 

117. How long did Hungary maintain the eminence 
secured in the middle of the fourteenth century? 

Ans. In 1457 Mathias Corvinus was elected king and 
carried Hungary to its pinnacle of prosperity and power, 
conquering Vienna and making it his capital. This was 
in 1485 and Hungary then covered more ground than at 
any time before or since. 

118. How did Hungary thrive? 

Ans. When not fighting the Turks, the successors of 
Ferdinand concentrated their energies on the suppression 
of Protestantism in Hungary. A Protestant rising in 1683 
very nearly led to the capture of Vienna and the destruc- 
tion of Austria, but the King of Poland, John Sobieski, 
saved Austria. 

119. What has been Hungary's history du ring the nine- 
teenth century? 

Ans. During the Napoleonic wars Hungary supplied 
money and troops to the Austrian army and did her share 
in combating the French, but in 1848 the narrow policy 
of Metternich drove the Hungarians into revolt under 
Kossuth. The Austrians were driven out of Hungary, but 
Russia intervened and Hungary was incorporated as a 
hereditary province of Austria. This was unsatisfactory 
to Hungary and, after various efforts, harmony was 
restored when Francis Joseph was crowned King of 
Hungary in 1867. 

120. How large is Hungary now? 

Ans. Hungary is still the larger half of the empire and 
contains about 125,000 square miles, or somewhat less 
than California. 

121. Just what is the relation existing between Austria 
and Hvmgary? 

Ans. Hungary, comprising Croatia, Slavonia, Transyl- 



48 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

vania, and Fiume, forms the realm of St. Stephen's crown, 
a factor in the empire-kingdom of the Hapsburg dynasty. 
The two states form a union under one monarch for 
mihtary, diplomatic and customs purposes, but otherwise 
retain their distinct independence. 

122. Were there any outbreaks in Francis Joseph's 
long raign? 

Ans. There is a fairly numerous party in Hungary that 
insists on complete separation from Austria, though not 
hostile to the king. In 1904-5 violent scenes occurred, 
and the government party was defeated. The nationalists 
insisted on separation of the two armies, on the use of the 
Hungarian language in commands, and on separate cus- 
toms. A few years later the younger Kossuth worked for 
an independent s':ate bank. Francis Joseph died in 
November, 1916, and was succeeded by Charles I. 

123. What is the capital of Hungary? 

Ans. Pesth, or, more correctly, Buda-Pesth, on both 
sides of the Danube, 163 miles farther down the river from 
Vienna in an east-southeast direction is the capital and 
leading city of Hungary. Its population is about 900,000, 
excelled by only three cities in America. It was formed 
in 1873 by the union of Buda on the west side of the 
Danube, and Pest, or Pesth, on the east side. The houses 
of Parliament were built in 1903. Buda was the capital 
of Roman Pannonia. Pest also existed in Roman history, 

124. How did Germany become involved in the present 
war? 

Ans. The immediate cause was in the support of her 
ally, Austria- Hungary, in its attempt to chastise Serbia 
for the assassination, on June 18, 1914, of the heir pre- 
sumptive to the Austrian throne, the Archduke Francis 
Ferdinand, and his wife at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, a 
recently acquired province of Austria. The assassin was 
a Serbian student. The Austrian government believed 
he was executing a plot laid in Serbia by the government, 
or at least by men in close touch with the government. 

125. What greater interest did Germany have? 

Ans. It is generally believed that the Serbian incident 
was not displeasing to Germany and but brought to 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 49 

speedier fruition a plot that Germany had been forming 
for years to conquer for herself " a place in the sun." 

126. What is meant by " a place in the sun " ? 

Ans. It is a phrase coined by the Kaiser to express the 
opinion that Germany was being hampered in her develop- 
ment by England and her allies — overshadowed, as it 
were, in all attempts to colonize and expand her trade. 

127. Was there foundation for this belief? 

Ans. In so far as her colonization schemes were con- 
cerned, England had blocked plan after plan, but Ger- 
many was not hampered in extending her trade, as wit- 
nessed by her great steamship lines, which traded un- 
molested in every part of the world. 

128. What was England's object in blocking Germany's 
colonization? 

Ans. Germany attributed it to the commercial jealousy 
of an effete country, beaten at its own trade of manu- 
facturer and trader; but the real reason was that England 
had colonies in every part of the world. England naturally 
preferred to choose who should be her neighbors. Bellicose 
parties are not desirable neighbors and Germany is a firm 
believer in the idea that might makes right. 

129. How did England block Germany's plans? 

Ans. Because of her insular position and her dependence 
upon her fleet, both for her food and her commerce, Eng- 
land's naval policy has been that prudence required a 
navy equal to that of any other two nations. Largely 
because of the strength of her navy, England has always 
been able to wield a decisive hand in all conventions where 
the balance of power has been settled. 

130. What is meant by ** the balance of power " ? 

Ans. An arrangement among a community of nations 
such that no single nation or a few in combination may 
acquire a degree of power that endangers the independence 
of any other. Where it is impossible to make such an 
alignment the matter is adjusted by making certain terri- 
tory neutral. 



50 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

131. What notable example is there of such a decree? 

Ans. At the downfall of Napoleon I in 1815, England 
demanded that the Kingdom of the Netherlands be 
created. It consisted of what is now Holland and Belgium. 
This territory had been the cockpit of Europe for centuries. 
In 1830, Belgium declared her independence and asked for 
recognition. England and France were willing to grant it 
but Prussia, Austria and Russia refused, fearing that 
Belgium would not be strong enough to resist an attack of 
France. It was finally agreed that Belgium should be 
" neutral in perpetuity," with the idea that if it were made 
impossible for a great power to invade it, war would be- 
come increasingly difficult and dangerous. Ratified by 
two treaties (1831-1839), the neutrality of Belgium was 
observed for eighty-three years. 

132. How does ** the balance of power " ent^r into the 
present struggle? 

Ans. Germany has believed that " the balance of 
power " was an obstacle to her advancement; that the 
plans for maintaining equality between the Powers was 
only a scheme to hold her in fetters. England, on the 
other hand, for over four hundred years has been the prime 
factor in maintaining the balance of power. In support 
of it she fought with Philip II of Spain, Louis XIV and* 
Napoleon. 

133. When may Germany's modem political relations 
with England be said to have begun? 

Ans. In the eighteenth century when George I, the 
Elector of Hanover, became King of England; but it was 
not until the time of Frederick the Great of Prussia that 
Germany was given consideration by England as a factor 
in the balance of power. Austria, as the dominant power, 
was England's ally as a balance against France; but when 
Maria Theresa formed an alliance with France to recover 
Silesia from Frederick, England lent her support to Fred- 
erick, paying him a subsidy of £670,000 a year. Although 
Russia, Saxony and Sweden supported Austria, the result 
of the war was to confirm Prussia, in the possession of 
ilesia. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 51 

134. What was England's gain as the result of Fred- 
erick's war? 

Ans. While Frederick was fighting France on the 
continent, England's navy practically destroyed French 
maritime competition. As a result of the war, England 
received Canada, Florida and all French territory east of 
the Mississippi. Spain received the French territory west 
of the Mississippi. In India, France renounced the right 
of exerting political influence. 

135. How did England repay Frederick? 

Ans. Frederick himself has written as follows: " When 
she concluded peace with France, England sacrificed 
Prussia's interest in the most shameful manner. She 
offered Austria the reconquest of Silesia and, in return 
for this humiliation inflicted on Prussia, the court of 
Vienna was to be allowed to resume its former friendly 
relations with England. As if all this treachery were not 
enough, English diplomacy was busy at St. Petersburg 
trying to stir up a feud between the King of Prussia and 
the Tsar Peter III. The alliance, which common inter- 
ests had concluded, was replaced by bitter enmity and 
intense hatred." 

136. What is the relationship between Frederick the 
Great and the present Kaiser, William II? 

Ans. The grandfather of the Kaiser's grandfather was 
the nephew of Frederick the Great. 

137. What were Germany's relations with England 
during the Napoleonic Wars? 

Ans. Germany and England fought together to over- 
throw Napoleon. German historians claim the honor of 
the defeat for Bliicher and his Prussians, but without the 
aid of England Napoleon would not have been defeated. 

138. What complaint against England did Germany 
have at the Congress of Vienna in 1815? 

Ans. England would not allow the annexation of 
Alsace-Lorraine or Saxony by Prussia, although Russia 
favored the idea. England saw her advantage in the 
formation of a weak German confederation under the 
tutelage of Austria and, with the help of France and 



52 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

Austria, thus defeated Russia, which was supposed to have 
designs on Constantinople. 

139. What was the English opinion of Germans at 
that time? 

Ans. Lord Palmerston described the country as "a 
land of damned professors." He said that " the German 
flag was unknown to international law and that British 
cruisers might treat the ships of the Confederation as 
pirates." His views were popular with Englishmen. 
Even Prince Albert, the consort of Queen Victoria, was 
disliked as a foreigner and considered unw^orthy of the 
queen. German opinion of Palmerston w^as expressed in 
a popular rhyme, 

" Hat der Teufel einen Sohn, 
1st er sicher Palmerston." 

(If the devil has a son, surely it is Palmerston.) 

140. When did the unification of Germany begin? 

Ans. In 1864 when Bismarck annexed Schleswig and 
Holstein to Prussia. By this move Prussia obtained Kiel 
and the canal through Holstein, which made possible 
Germany's great double naval base which is so useful in 
the present war. Although Palmerston had objected and 
with Lord John Russell advocated resistance, Queen 
Victoria interfered in behalf of Prussia, and Bismarck won. 

141. Why did not England intervene in the war of 
1866, when Prussia defeated Austria? 

Ans. The growing power of France, which had annexed 
Savoy and Nice, was a menace and England welcomed the 
new Germany as a factor in the balance of power. 

142. Where were England's sympathies in the Franco- 
Prussian War m 1870? 

Ans. At the beginning the sympathy was with Ger- 
many, but when France was w^hipped and Germany arro- 
gantly insisted upon settlement on her own terms, the 
sympathy changed to France. England's objections to 
the exactions of Germany irritated Bismarck, although 
little consideration was given to them. 

143. Why did England acquiesce? 

Ans. She had troubles of her own. Russia declared 
itself released from the provisions of the Treaty of Paris 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 53 

(1856), which forbade her to keep a navy in the Black Sea, 
and was upheld by Bismarck in the repudiation. France 
was crushed, Austria was not strong enough to oppose both 
Germany and Russia, England found herself powerless in 
continental affairs and Germany controlled continental 
policies. England was in a state of "splendid isolation." 

144. What led to this ** splendid isolation " ? 

Ans. England and France had jointly controlled the 
finances of Egypt. In 1882, during a revolt in Alexandria, 
there was a massacre of Europeans. The Turkish govern- 
ment showed no disposition to straighten out the affair 
and Great Britain decided to intervene. She invited 
France to join, but France refused. Sir Garnet Wolseley 
overthrew the khedive's army in 1883 and the " occupa- 
tion " of Egypt followed. Lord Granville stated that the 
occupation would cease when order had been restored. 
This was not done and the French government continued 
to call for a fulfillment of the promise. The hostility 
between the two countries was such that an outbreak was 
possible at any time and Germany was left a free hand on 
the continent. 

145. What new policies did Bismarck now inaugurate? 
Ans. The policy of colonial expansion and that of a 

protective tariff for German industries. 

146. What was England's attitude toward Germany's 
colonial policy? 

Ans. In each case where she thought it to her dis- 
advantage she opposed it. She planted her flag in Santa 
Lucia Bay a short time ahead of the arrival of a German 
warship coming there for the same purpose in 1884. The 
next year Bechuanaland was occupied so as to divide the 
Transvaal and" German Southwest Africa. In other cases 
England yielded to Germany's efforts. 

147. In what affair did England make a serious mis- 
take? 

Ans. In settling the affair of the island of Zanzibar* 
which Germany claimed. While refusing to allow Ger- 
many's claims to Zanzibar, those to German East Africa 
were admitted. In this settlement the island of Heligo- 
land was ceded to Germany. This island, lying forty 



54 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

miles northwest of the mouth of the Elbe, has since been 
fortified by Germany, making it a second Gibraltar. 

148. What brought to England a knowledge of her un- 
popularity with the world at large? 

Ans. The Boer War in 1899 brought out the fact that 
English policies and institutions were hated all over the 
continent. The press of France, Russia and Germany 
attacked England and her rulers in the most vicious 
manner, and especially the German papers gloried in the 
British reverses. The vilest and most Scandalous articles 
and cartoons appeared, attacking even the beloved 
Victoria, grandmother of the Kaiser. 

149. What act of Germany especially enraged England? 

Ans. At the time of the Boer War, a telegram from the 
Kaiser to President Kruger congratulated him on his 
success in repelling the armed bands which had broken 
into his country and in maintaining independence against 
foreign aggression. 

150. What was the result? 

Ans. Many Englishmen began to wonder if the game 
was worth the candle and to reject the old idea of imperial- 
ism. They thought the energies of the government might 
better be devoted to the arts of peace ; that the empire had 
territory enough and that overexpansion would bring 
downfall as it did to Rome. 

161. What did Germany think of England's plans of 
preserving the balance of jpower and the status quo? 

Ans. Treitschke, in his Deutsche Kclmfe, writes! 
" England: the successful burglar, who, an immense for- 
tune amassed, has retired from business, and desires now 
the protection of the police." 

162. What did Germany suggest at the time of the 
Anglo- Japanese alliance in 1902? 

Ans. Germany suggested that it be a triple alliance of 
Great Britain, Germany and Japan. She was finally 
ignored because she demanded terms which Great Britain 
considered did not divide the responsibilities fairly. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 55 

153. What other events tended to widen the misunder- 
standings between Germany and England? 

Ans. To England, the naval increase policy of Germany 
and the ill feeling shown toward England during the Boer 
War were irritating. Germany felt that when the Boer 
republics became a part of the British Empire her last 
opportunity to acquire a colony in a temperate climate 
had been blocked and the two countries were mutually 
suspicious of each other. 

164. What occurred at this time to increase this dis- 
trust? 

Ans. After the Boxer rebellion in China, the Russian 
troops remained in Manchuria, and in 1901, Russia, by a 
treaty with China, practically made Manchuria a Russian 
province. England asked Germany to join in a formal 
protest in accordance with the terms of the Anglo-German 
Convention of October, 1900. Germany refused on the 
ground that the Convention did not provide for such an 
occurrence. 

155. What was the wording of the ** Convention " ? 

Ans. " In case another power should take advantage of 
complications in China to obtain territorial advantages 
in any form whatsoever, the two contracting parties bind 
themselves to conclude a preliminary agreement with 
respect to measures eventually to be taken for the pro- 
tection of their respective interests in China." 

156. What deduction did England make from this 
refusal? 

Ans. That Germany was playing into Russia's hands to 
the detriment of England with the intention of causing a 
rupture between Russia and England and profiting thereby. 

157. What action of England at this time led to far- 
reaching results? 

Ans. On October 14, 1903, England and France agreed 
on an arbitration treaty and on April 8, 1904, the agree- 
ment known as the Entente Cordiale was signed. 

158. What was the nature of the Entente Cordiale? 

Ans. By it, France conceded British paramount interest 
in Egypt, in return for British concessions allowing France 



56 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

full sway in Morocco^ Thus two causes of irritation be- 
tween France and England were eliminated. 

159. Did Germany object to the Entente Cordiale? 

Ans. Germany did not object at the time because she 
hoped that Russia might break with her ally, France, for 
coming to an understanding with Great Britain which for 
years had opposed Russia both in Europe and Asia. 

160. How was the Entente further strengthened in 
Great Britain's interest? 

Ans. Italy's interest in Tripoli was guaranteed by 
France. With Cyprus and Malta as naval bases and with 
England's agreement with Spain to maintain the status 
quo in the Mediterranean, a free and uninterrupted inter- 
course with her Indian colonies was assured. 

161. What move of Germany seemed to threaten Great 
Britain in her Indian possessions? 

Ans. For some time Germany had been cultivating 
relations with Turkey and Germans had secured a con- 
cession for a railway line known in Germany as the 
'* B. B. B.", Berlin-Byzantium-Bagdad. The projected 
terminus of this line was on the Persian Gulf within easy 
striking distance of Bombay. Considering this a hostile 
enterprise, Great Britain announced that she would re- 
gard the establishment of a naval base or a fortified port 
in the Persian Gulf as a very grave menace to British 
interests and would certainly resist it by all means in her 
power. 

162. Why did Great Britain consider she was justified 
in taking such a stand? 

Ans. By a treaty with Persia in 1622, Great Britain 
agreed " to keep two men-of-war constantly to defend the 
gulf." Since that year, England has been paramaiimt in 
the gulf. 

163. What act of Turkey confirmed Great Britain in the 
belief that her interests were jeopardized? 

Ans. The Turkish government had built a railroad 
from Damascus to Mecca. By connection with the Bag- 
dad line at Aleppo, Turkish military forces could be 
landed on the Egyptian frontier. This line has been used 
in^Turkey's attack on the Suez Canal in the present war. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 57 

164. What action did Germany take after the defeat of 
Russia by Japan at Mukden? 

Ans. Germany claimed she had no knowledge of any 
Anglo-French agreement as to Morocco. The Kaiser, in 
a speech at Tangier, said: ". I arn determined to do all in 
my power to safeguard efficaciously the interests of 
Germany in Morocco." Germany demanded that Mor- 
occo be placed under international control. Without the 
support of Russia^ France was not in a condition to resort 
to arms, therefore decided not to resist Germany's claims, 
although England offered to land 100,000 troops in Schles- 
wig-Holstein. 

165. What was the final outcome? 

Ans. It was arranged that a conference of the Powers 
should meet at Algeciras in January, 1906. At this con- 
ference Germany had but one supporter, Austria-Hungary. 
Although theoretically she won by the internationaliza- 
tion of Morocco, France and Spain were favored by the 
decisions. 

166. What was another of England^s diplomatic moves? 

Ans. August 31, 1907, a treaty was signed with Russia 
which dispelled the fear of Russian interference in India 
and left Russia free to combat Turkish and German 
activity in the Balkan States and Persia. 

167. How did Germany look on this move? 

Ans. Germany believed it a deep-laid plan to isolate 
her, and conventions between France and Japan, and 
Russia and Japan strengthened her belief. England 
claimed that she was only protecting herself against Ger- 
man aggression which was being directed against her in 
every quarter. 

168. What was the result of the Anglo-Russian Con- 
vention of 1907? 

Ans. Northern Persia became practically a Russian 
Protectorate in exchange for Russian support of England's 
control of Southern Persia and the Persian Gulf. Ger- 
many found herself compelled to accept the conditions in 
order that her Bagdad railway might be completed. 
This was finally arranged by providing that the part from 



58 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

Bagdad to the Gulf should be built tijader Turkish direc- 
tion, Germans to have no larger share o;f the capital than 
any other power. 

169. What act of Austria-Hungary threatened the 
peace of Europe in 1908? 

Ans. Since the Congress of Berlin, a period of thirty 
years, Austria-Hungary had occupied Bosnia and Herze- 
govina. In October, 1908, she announced that she would 
annex them and Bulgaria declared her independence of 
Turkey; both were acts in defiance of the decrees of the 
Congress. Russia agreed to this in return for compensa- 
tion — namely, the opening of the straits, but the annexa- 
tion was carried through without any consideration for 
Russia. 

170. What action did Russia and England take? 

Ans. They demanded a European conference and com- 
pensation for Serbia, which had hoped to unite the Slavic 
States under Serbian rule. Serbia protested and, with 
the support of Russia, England and France, contested 
Austria's right for six months but was finally obliged to 
accept the annexation as an accomplished fact. Russia 
decided not to go to war in her support and Serbia was 
obliged to sign a renunciation of her claims which ended 
with the promise: " She undertakes, moreover, to modify 
the direction of her policy with regard to Austria- Hungary 
and to live in future on good, neighborly terms with the 
latter." 

171. What was Germany's attitude in this matter? 

Ans. She notified England that " Germany could not, 
any more than Austria- Hungary, allow discussion of the 
annexation by the conference." When mobilization of 
Austria and Russia threatened an outbreak of war, Eng- 
land and France suggested that the Powers take action at 
Vienna and at Belgrade (the capital of Serbia). Germany 
refused and demanded that Belgrade should yield to 
Austria. Germany further made representations at St. 
Petersburg and Russia left Serbia without support. This 
seems almost like a rehearsal of what occurred five years 
later, in 1914, with the difference that Russia did not give 
way in the latter case. 



HISTORY OP GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 59 

172. What act of Germany on July 1, 1911, led to 
further friction? 

Ans. The German gunboat, Panther, anchored in the 
harbor of Agadir, on the east coast c»f Morocco. Germany 
notified the Powers that it was sent at the request of 
German firms in Agadir and vicinity to protect German 
interests in that territory. As there were no German 
firms in Agadir, no German interests and no disturbances, 
it was generally believe^ that Germany hoped to establish 
a German naval base in that port and to share in the par- 
tition of Morocco which had already been benevolently 
divided by France and Spain. 

173. What was Germany^s contention? 

Ans. That France was not abiding by the terms of the 
Algeciras Convention and was laying plans to take over 
Morocco. 

174. What incident might be cited in support of Ger- 
many's contention? 

Ans. In September, 1908, some German subjects who 
were deserters from the French Foreign Legion were taken 
by force from the German consular agent at Casablanca 
as they were embarking for Europe on a German steamer. 
The tension between France and Germany became so great 
over the matter that Great Britain and Russia promised to 
support France as against Germany. Germany sub- 
mitted the matter to ar Lit rat ion. 

175. What was the result? 

Ans. Germany recognized France's " special political 
interests" in Morocco and France agreed not to interfere 
with Germany's cojnmercial and industrial interests in the 
Sheereefian Empire. Afterwards, Germany proposed to 
France that all concessions in Mqrbcco should be given to 
French and German companies and that if any third 
parties should be admitted, their share should be taken 
from the French part of the division. 

176. Wh^at was France's reply? 

Ans. She insisted that British and Spanish capital 
^^hould be allowed to enter but that all concessions should 
e to groups satisfactory to both governments. 



60 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

177. What was the direct cause of Germany's demon- 
stration at Agadir? 

Ans. The sending of an expedition by France to Fez 
on the ground that European lives were jeopardized by 
disturbances in that place. Fez was taken without opposi- 
tion and Germany believed it to be but the beginning of 
French action to repudiate the Act of Algeciras. 

178. What step did England take in the Agadir affair? 

Ans. She notified Germany that any arrangement 
France might make willingly with Germany would be 
concurred in by England provided that the status quo in 
the Mediterranean was not upset. But any attempt to 
force France would not be viewed as a friendly act. She 
intimated further, diplomatically, that if the consideration 
of the question was to be of long duration there were 
better places than in Agadir harbor for the Panther to 
anchor. In an inspired speech before a financial conven- 
tion, Lloyd George said that if any attempt were made to 
treat Great Britain as if she were no account in the cabinet 
of nations, " that peace at that price would be a humilia- 
tion intolerable for a great country like ours to endure." 

179. How was Lloyd George's speech received in 
Germany? 

Ans. Germany considered it a threat and England and 
Germany were nearer war than they had ever been before. 
Sir Edward Grey sounded the German government as to 
whether a proposal for a conference would be acceptable 
and the reply, though not absolutely conclusive, pointed 
to the fact that a proposal for a conference might not be 
acceptable. 

180. What was the outcome of the Franco-German 
Conference? 

Ans. France was allowed a protectorate over Morocco 
(although not so called) and pledged herself to the open 
door. Germany received fropi Prance territory which 
cdnnects her colonies in the Congo and the settlement was 
considered a triumph for France even in Germany. The 
Germans also considered that Great Britain had blocked 
her plans again. 



HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 61 

. 181. In reviewing the many crises that have irritated 
all of the Eiuropean countries, what may be summed up as 
the real cause of the present great war? 

Ans. The greed for power and empire. The diplo- 
matic tritimphs by means o^ questionable methods. The 
language o^f European diplomacy which has been a vivid 
example of Voltaire's saying that they " employ speech 
only to conceal their thoughts." European diplomacy has 
come to mean expertness in deceit. Men, who in their 
private affairs would consider it dishonorable to lie, think 
it i^heir duty in diplomacy not to tell the truth about their 
nation's plans. Actions which in an individual would be 
punished as theft, when performed in behalf of a nation 
become diplomatic triumphs. 

182. Was Germany any greater offender in this regard 
than the other countries? 

Ans. To an equal degree of deceit and dishonesty, 
Germany has added brutality in all her dealings. She 
has rattled her sabre and played the part of a bully in 
every case when she thought she could win by doing so. 
Her attempt to foirm an alliance against the United States 
at the beginning of the Spanish War and German inter- 
ference with Dewey at Manila are well remembered. To 
this she adds either blasphemy or insanity, as witness the 
words of the Kaiser in his Proclamation to the Army, 
September 13, 1914. 

" The spirit of God has descended upon Me because I am 
German Emperor. I am the instrument of the Most High, 
I am His sword, His representative on earth. Woe and 
death to those who oppose My willl Death to the infidel who 
denies My mission! Lei all the enemies of the German 
nation perish! God demands their destruction — God, who 
by My mouth summons you to carry out His decrees.^' 



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